Individual differences in boys’ and girls’ timing and tempo of puberty: Modeling development with nonlinear growth models

“Mixed-effects and growth curve models have become the main methods used for describing individual differences in intraindividual change (Duncan, Duncan, Stryker, Li, & Alpert, 1999; McArdle, 2009; McArdle & Nesselroade, 2003; Preacher, Wichman, MacCallum, & Briggs, 2008; Singer & Willett, 2003).”

“Incomplete data were deleted listwise under the previously tested missing completely at random assumption (Little, 1988).”

“…of many different types of change processes and configurations of interindividual differences (Blozis, 2004; Browne, 1993; Browne & Du Toit, 1991; Choi, Harring, & Hancock, 2009; Grimm & Ram, 2009a, 2009b; Grimm, Ram, & Hamagami, in press; Laird & Ware, 1982; Ram & Grimm, 2007, 2009).”

“Because pubertal tempo varies across development as indicated in the present study and others (e.g., Eaves et al., 2004; Marshall & Tanner, 1969, 1970; Susman, Houts, et al., 2010; Tanner, 1971), we may find the association between the timing and tempo of puberty changes across development.”

“Because pubertal tempo varies across development as indicated in the present study and others (e.g., Eaves et al., 2004; Marshall & Tanner, 1969, 1970; Susman, Houts, et al., 2010; Tanner, 1971), we may find the association between the timing and tempo of puberty changes across development.”

“…in identifying a common set of shapes that can be used to accurately describe the pattern of observed changes and the interindividual differences therein (see, e.g., Grimm & Ram, 2009a; Muthén & Shedden, 1999; Nagin & Odgers, 2010; Ram & Grimm, 2009; Ram, Grimm, Gatzke-Kopp, & Molenaar, in press).”

“Mixed-effects and growth curve models have become the main methods used for describing individual differences in intraindividual change (Duncan, Duncan, Stryker, Li, & Alpert, 1999; McArdle, 2009; McArdle & Nesselroade, 2003; Preacher, Wichman, MacCallum, & Briggs, 2008; Singer & Willett, 2003).”

“…in identifying a common set of shapes that can be used to accurately describe the pattern of observed changes and the interindividual differences therein (see, e.g., Grimm & Ram, 2009a; Muthén & Shedden, 1999; Nagin & Odgers, 2010; Ram & Grimm, 2009; Ram, Grimm, Gatzke-Kopp, & Molenaar, in press).”

“…of many different types of change processes and configurations of interindividual differences (Blozis, 2004; Browne, 1993; Browne & Du Toit, 1991; Choi, Harring, & Hancock, 2009; Grimm & Ram, 2009a, 2009b; Grimm, Ram, & Hamagami, in press; Laird & Ware, 1982; Ram & Grimm, 2007, 2009).”

“…2003; Graber et al., 2004), other internalizing symptoms (e.g., Hayward et al., 1997), eating disorders (e.g., Blyth, Simmons, & Zakin, 1985; Graber et al., 1997), and delinquency (e.g., Caspi, Lynam, Moffitt, & Silva, 1993; Magnusson, Stattin, & Allen, 1985; see also Mendle et al., 2007,…”

“…Hayward et al., 1997), eating disorders (e.g., Blyth, Simmons, & Zakin, 1985; Graber et al., 1997), and delinquency (e.g., Caspi, Lynam, Moffitt, & Silva, 1993; Magnusson, Stattin, & Allen, 1985; see also Mendle et al., 2007, for review of detrimental outcomes associated with girls’ early puberty).”

“However, other studies have reported that earlier maturation is unrelated to risky behaviors (i.e., delinquency) or may even serve as a protective factor against risky behavior in boys (e.g., Hayward et al., 1997; Kaplowitz, 2004; Rierdan & Koff, 1991; Stattin & Magnusson, 1990).”

“…related to physical characteristics, including height (e.g., Belsky et al., 2007; Huang, Biro, & Dorn, 2009; Li et al., 2009; Llop-Viñolas et al., 2004), weight (e.g., Tanner-Smith, 2010), and body mass index (BMI; e.g., Davison, Susman, & Birch, 2003; He & Karlberg, 2001; Huang et al., 2009).”

“The findings for timing of puberty were consistent with past research on earlier timing and behavior problems in girls (Angold, 2003; Caspi et al., 2003; Ge et al., 2003; Graber et al., 2004; Hayward et al., 1997).”

“Similarly, Pantsiotou et al. (2008) found that girls who entered Tanner Stage 2 at an earlier age (earlier timing) tended to reach menarche more quickly (fewer years between onset and menarche, a faster tempo). Investigations of pubertal development in relation to height also indirectly suggest a negative relation bet…”

“In boys, genital development results primarily from increases in testosterone, whereas in girls breast development is the result of primarily increases in estrogen (e.g., Grumbach & Styne, 1998; Susman, Dockray, et al., 2010; Susman et al., 1987).”

“As expected, and in line with previous studies (e.g., Davison et al., 2003), our pattern of results indicated that timing of pubertal development was related to degree of physical maturation in both boys and girls.”

“Mixed-effects and growth curve models have become the main methods used for describing individual differences in intraindividual change (Duncan, Duncan, Stryker, Li, & Alpert, 1999; McArdle, 2009; McArdle & Nesselroade, 2003; Preacher, Wichman, MacCallum, & Briggs, 2008; Singer & Willett, 2003).”

“Making use of a logistic growth function (see Grimm & Ram, 2009a; Ram & Grimm, 2007), we estimated when adolescents entered Tanner Stage 3 and how quickly individuals were changing at Tanner Stage 3 for each measure of secondary sex characteristics (i.e., breast development for girls, genital…”

“Timing of puberty has been related to physical characteristics, including height (e.g., Belsky et al., 2007; Huang, Biro, & Dorn, 2009; Li et al., 2009; Llop-Viñolas et al., 2004), weight (e.g., Tanner-Smith, 2010), and body mass index (BMI; e.g., Davison, Susman, & Birch, 2003; He & Karlberg,…”

“Most prominently, these changes were systematically described by Tanner and colleagues (Marshall & Tanner, 1969, 1970; Tanner, 1962) and more recently elaborated by Biro et al. (2001).”

“…and externalizing problems) for both boys and girls (e.g., Beaver & Wright, 2005; Ge et al., 2006, 2002; Graber et al., 1997; Graber, Seeley, Brooks-Gunn, & Lewinsohn, 2004; Negriff & Susman, 2011; Negriff & Trickett, 2010; Siegel, Yancey, Aneshensel, & Schuler, 1999; Susman et al., 2007).”

“This finding of earlier pubertal timing for girls replicates previous work (Lee, 1980; Susman, Houts, et al., 2010; Wheeler, 1991).”

“…is associated with negative outcomes (mainly internalizing and externalizing problems) for both boys and girls (e.g., Beaver & Wright, 2005; Ge et al., 2006, 2002; Graber et al., 1997; Graber, Seeley, Brooks-Gunn, & Lewinsohn, 2004; Negriff & Susman, 2011; Negriff & Trickett, 2010; Siegel,…”

“The developmental readiness hypothesis posits that early maturing adolescents are at highest risk for psychological and behavioral problems because they are not emotionally or cognitively ready for the major physiological, social, and emotional changes comprising puberty (e.g., Ge et al., 2002).”

“The findings for timing of puberty were consistent with past research on earlier timing and behavior problems in girls (Angold, 2003; Caspi et al., 2003; Ge et al., 2003; Graber et al., 2004; Hayward et al., 1997).”

“…and externalizing problems) for both boys and girls (e.g., Beaver & Wright, 2005; Ge et al., 2006, 2002; Graber et al., 1997; Graber, Seeley, Brooks-Gunn, & Lewinsohn, 2004; Negriff & Susman, 2011; Negriff & Trickett, 2010; Siegel, Yancey, Aneshensel, & Schuler, 1999; Susman et al., 2007).”

“This finding of earlier pubertal timing for girls replicates previous work (Lee, 1980; Susman, Houts, et al., 2010; Wheeler, 1991).”

“…models have also been used to model change in cognitive development, including the rate of decline of errors in speech across early childhood (e.g., Burchinal & Appelbaum, 1991), learning tasks (e.g., Browne & Du Toit, 1991), and letter–word identification in early elementary school (e.g., Grimm &…”

“For example, Llop-Viñolas et al. (2004) reported that girls who entered puberty earlier (and thus were shorter upon entry) grew more quickly, making up the difference in height by the end of puberty (see also Apter & Vihko, 1985; Martı́-Henneberg & Vizmanos, 1997).”

“…flexible, allowing for representation of many different types of change processes and configurations of interindividual differences (Blozis, 2004; Browne, 1993; Browne & Du Toit, 1991; Choi, Harring, & Hancock, 2009; Grimm & Ram, 2009a, 2009b; Grimm, Ram, & Hamagami, in press; Laird & Ware,…”

“Apter and Vihko (1985) reported that girls who started puberty earlier also tended to reach menarche faster, suggesting a negative relation between timing and tempo (e.g., early onset with faster growth).”

“In the current analysis, we make use of height and weight measurements obtained at the age 12.5 assessment, as this is the assessment nearest in time to the typical growth spurt associated with puberty (e.g., Warren & Brooks-Gunn, 1989).”

“Because pubertal tempo varies across development as indicated in the present study and others (e.g., Eaves et al., 2004; Marshall & Tanner, 1969, 1970; Susman, Houts, et al., 2010; Tanner, 1971), we may find the association between the timing and tempo of puberty changes across development.”

“…report that early maturation is associated with negative outcomes (mainly internalizing and externalizing problems) for both boys and girls (e.g., Beaver & Wright, 2005; Ge et al., 2006, 2002; Graber et al., 1997; Graber, Seeley, Brooks-Gunn, & Lewinsohn, 2004; Negriff & Susman, 2011; Negriff &…”

“…is extremely flexible, allowing for representation of many different types of change processes and configurations of interindividual differences (Blozis, 2004; Browne, 1993; Browne & Du Toit, 1991; Choi, Harring, & Hancock, 2009; Grimm & Ram, 2009a, 2009b; Grimm, Ram, & Hamagami, in press;…”

“These findings are inconsistent with Pantsiotou et al. (2008), who reported an inverse relation between onset of puberty and time to peak height velocity; Biro et al. (2001), who showed an inverse relation between timing and menarche in girls; and Mendle et al. (2010), who showed an inverse…”

“However, other studies have reported that earlier maturation is unrelated to risky behaviors (i.e., delinquency) or may even serve as a protective factor against risky behavior in boys (e.g., Hayward et al., 1997; Kaplowitz, 2004; Rierdan & Koff, 1991; Stattin & Magnusson, 1990).”

“However, these findings are consistent with Huang et al. (2009), who showed no relation between timing of puberty and peak height velocity in girls.”

“For example, Llop-Viñolas et al. (2004) examined tempo, operationalized as the number of years it took girls to progress from Tanner breast development Stage 2 to menarche.”

“But in both animal and human model studies, increases in testosterone and estrogen are known to increase interest in sexual activities (Finkelstein et al., 1998).”

“Tempo may be influenced by different factors, such as prenatal growth (van Weissenbruch & Delemarre-van de Waal, 2006).”

“…and externalizing problems) for both boys and girls (e.g., Beaver & Wright, 2005; Ge et al., 2006, 2002; Graber et al., 1997; Graber, Seeley, Brooks-Gunn, & Lewinsohn, 2004; Negriff & Susman, 2011; Negriff & Trickett, 2010; Siegel, Yancey, Aneshensel, & Schuler, 1999; Susman et al., 2007).”

“…related to physical characteristics, including height (e.g., Belsky et al., 2007; Huang, Biro, & Dorn, 2009; Li et al., 2009; Llop-Viñolas et al., 2004), weight (e.g., Tanner-Smith, 2010), and body mass index (BMI; e.g., Davison, Susman, & Birch, 2003; He & Karlberg, 2001; Huang et al., 2009).”

“However, other studies have reported that earlier maturation is unrelated to risky behaviors (i.e., delinquency) or may even serve as a protective factor against risky behavior in boys (e.g., Hayward et al., 1997; Kaplowitz, 2004; Rierdan & Koff, 1991; Stattin & Magnusson, 1990).”

“Additionally, the onset of puberty is a reliable marker of maturation in youths that exhibits significant variation regarding age at onset and pace of progression (14).”

“Additionally, the pace of developmental maturation during puberty, termed pubertal tempo, has also been explored as a possible potentiator for psychopathology (Keenan et al., 2014; Marceau et al., 2011), an effect which may also vary by sex (Mendle et al., 2010).”