The DOI matches its Crossref record; 77 of the 77 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 24 of the 58 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
The benefit of generating errors during learning
Open accessAbstract
Testing has been found to be a powerful learning tool, but educators might be reluctant to make full use of its benefits for fear that any errors made would be harmful to learning. We asked whether testing could be beneficial to memory even during novel learning, when nearly all responses were errors, and where errors were unlikely to be related to either cues or targets. In 4 experiments, participants learned definitions for unfamiliar English words, or translations for foreign vocabulary, by generating a response and being given corrective feedback, by reading the word and its definition or translation, or by selecting from a choice of definitions or translations followed by feedback. In a final test of all words, generating errors followed by feedback led to significantly better memory for the correct definition or translation than either reading or making incorrect choices, suggesting that the benefits of generation are not restricted to correctly generated items. Even when information to be learned is novel, errorful generation may play a powerful role in potentiating encoding of corrective feedback. Experiments 2A, 2B, and 3 revealed, via metacognitive judgments of learning, that participants are strikingly unaware of this benefit, judging errorful generation to be a less effective encoding method than reading or incorrect choosing, when in fact it was better. Predictions reflected participants' subjective experience during learning. If subjective difficulty leads to more effort at encoding, this could at least partly explain the errorful generation advantage.
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Claims the paper makes
200 Own result · 67 Own interpretation · 15 No full text of the sources · 14 Own method · 8 No basis given · 7 Supported · 5 Partly supported · 5 Sources not found · 4 Supported so far · 2 Not checked yet · 1 Mixed support · accuracy not yet measured
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Kornell et al. found that the test condition led to better final test performance than the read-only condition.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Unsuccessful retrieval
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Kornell et al., 2009 source
The Results and Discussion (p. 6) report significantly higher final-test cued-recall accuracy in the test condition than in the read-only condition in Experiment 4. The same pattern is reported for other experiments on pp. 6–7. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“On the other hand, there is also evidence that generating responses can be beneficial even when many errors are produced, as long as corrective feedback is given (e.g., Kornell, Hays & Bjork, 2009).”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Kornell, Hays & Bjork, 2009 source
The General Discussion (p. 7) reports that unsuccessful retrieval attempts accompanied by feedback enhanced learning. In Results and Discussion (p. 6), 77% of responses were errors of commission, yet final recall was significantly higher after retrieval attempts with feedback than after studying the answers for the same amount of time. The Concluding Comment (p. 8) explicitly says feedback is critical. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“However, there is evidence that feedback may enhance the benefits of tests (Butler & Roediger, 2008;Pashler, Cepeda, Wixted & Rohrer, 2005).”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Butler & Roediger, 2008 source
In “The Acquisition of Misinformation,” the paper reports that feedback enhanced the observed testing effect: both immediate and delayed feedback produced large gains in correct responses compared with no feedback. This directly supports the citing sentence’s hedged claim that feedback may enhance the benefits of tests. (LLM, conf=0.94)
- Supportedcites Pashler, Cepeda, Wixted & Rohrer, 2005 source
The Results and Discussion section (page not provided) reports that correct-answer feedback after an incorrect test response improved final-test performance and increased one-week retention compared with no feedback. This supports the citing sentence’s qualified claim that feedback may enhance the benefits of tests. (LLM, conf=0.92)
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Even in the undetermined condition, where participants nearly always produced an error, generating led to better final test performance than reading.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Unsuccessful retrieval
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Kane & Anderson, 1978 source
The General Discussion reports that subjects in the Undetermined Sentence Completion group were almost always wrong when supplying the missing word, yet recalled more on the test one week later than the Reading Only control group. This supports the claimed advantage of generating over reading in that condition. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Supported
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“Moreover, it has been found that the harder the test, and the greater the effort required for retrieval, the greater the benefit to subsequent memory (e.g., Carpenter & DeLosh, 2006;Pyc & Rawson, 2009).”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Carpenter & DeLosh, 2006 source
The General Discussion reports that items retrieved with fewer letter cues were retained better on a later test, a pattern replicated in Experiment 3. It interprets reduced cue support as requiring more elaborative retrieval processing and concludes that test benefits were greatest under those conditions. (LLM, conf=0.91)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Pyc & Rawson, 2009 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Furthermore, it is difficult to explain Kane and Anderson's (1978) findings by Grimaldi and Karpicke's account, since in their undetermined condition the targets were unrelated to the most obvious, incorrect, completions so it is highly unlikely that they would have been retrieved along with them.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Errorful generation
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Kane and Anderson's (1978) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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- Partly supported
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“There is also evidence that greater attention is given to feedback that does not match expectations (e.g., Butterfield & Metcalfe, 2001;Fazio & Marsh, 2009)”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Errorful generation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Butterfield & Metcalfe, 2001 source
- Supportedcites Fazio & Marsh, 2009 source
The General Discussion states that unexpected feedback leads to greater effort to encode it and describes the present studies as showing a focus on that feedback. The experiments found better memory for feedback that did not match participants’ expectations, supporting the claim about greater attention. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Kornell et al. found no advantage of generating over reading when total trial time was equated.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Errorful generation
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Kornell et al., 2009 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Experiment 2 held total trial time constant and found no significant difference in final recall for fictional items (Method and Results and Discussion, p. 4). But the claim presents that result as general: Experiments 4 and 6 also equated trial time and found significantly better recall after retrieval attempts than after reading (Results and Discussion, pp. 6–7). (LLM, conf=0.88)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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- Partly supported
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“However, it has also been found that ease of processing, or encoding fluency, influences JOLs (e.g.Castel, McCabe, & Roediger, 2007;Koriat, 2008;Hertzog, Dunlosky, Robinson & Kidder, 2003;Schwartz, Benjamin & Bjork, 1997).”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Errorful generation
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Castel, McCabe, & Roediger, 2007 source
The General Discussion (page not supplied) says that fluency plays a critical role in judgments of learning (JOLs) and that fluent identical pairs receive inflated JOLs. Experiment 2 also identifies ease of processing as a proposed reason for their high JOLs. (LLM, conf=0.93)
- Supportedcites Koriat, 2008 source
The Results and Discussion state that ease of learning affects JOLs and that processing fluency makes a unique contribution to them. The paper also identifies study time and trials to acquisition as indicators of encoding fluency, supporting the paraphrase. (LLM, conf=0.94)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hertzog, Dunlosky, Robinson & Kidder, 2003 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“In both Grimaldi and Karpicke's (2012) and Huelser and Metcalfe's (2012) studies, participants generated guesses which were highly related to the cues in both the related and unrelated conditions (e.g., sleep for the cue pillow).”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Errorful generation
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Grimaldi & Karpicke, 2012 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Experiment 1 procedure says participants guessed a target for both related and unrelated cue–target pairs. The Experiment 2 Materials section says the lure for each cue was its most frequently produced response, and Experiment 2 describes a lure as related to its cue. These passages support cue-related guesses in both pair types, but do not establish that participants’ guesses generally were highly related to the cues. (LLM, conf=0.81)
- Supportedcites Huelser & Metcalfe, 2012 source
The Latent semantic analysis section reports that participants generated errors related to the cue in both the related- and unrelated-materials conditions. It gives similar cue–error relatedness values for the two conditions in Experiment 1 (.28 and .25), and reports the same pattern in Experiment 2. The provided passages do not give page numbers. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“For unstudied items, generating correct responses has often, though not invariably, been shown to elicit higher JOLs than reading, suggesting that participants are aware of the benefits of generation (e.g., Begg, Vinski, Frankovich, & Holgate, 1991).”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Errorful generation
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Begg, Vinski, Frankovich, & Holgate, 1991 source
Experiment 3 describes participants predicting whether they would remember words as they first encountered complete words or fragments. Its Results report higher memorability ratings for generated than read items, both between and within subjects; the General Discussion says participants were more optimistic about remembering generated items. The paper supports the cited example, though it does not itself establish how often this occurs across studies. (LLM, conf=0.88)
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Predictions reflected participants' subjective experience during learning.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In a final test of all words, generating errors followed by feedback led to significantly better memory for the correct definition/translation than either reading or making incorrect choices, suggesting that the benefits of generation are not restricted to correctly generated items.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Abstract
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“when the initial response was correct but the final test response was incorrect, participants picked the original lure from the study phase at a rate no different from the chance rate of 33.3%, t(17) = .78,p = .447.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“while the Read and Choice conditions did not differ (t (29) = .54,p = .596,d = .05).”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance: Experiment 2A (English words).
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There was no difference between reading and choosing, t(23) = 1.68, p = .106,d = .12.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance: Experiment 2B (Euskara words).
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Firstly, Choice JOLs for definitions guessed correctly at study were very substantially higher than for items incorrect at study (Fig. 3A), t(29) = 7.02, p < .001,d = 1.11.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Judgments of learning: Experiment 2A (English)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There was no difference between reading and incorrect choosing, t(29) = .90,p = .373,d = .10.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance: Experiment 2A (English words).
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“with no difference between reading and incorrect choosing, t(23) = .14,p = .892,d = .011.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance: Experiment 2B (Euskara words).
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Contrary to our expectations, choosing did not lead to poorer performance than reading, even when the analysis was confined to just those items which were incorrect at study.”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
“Our hypothesis that incorrect choosing might lead to poorer final test performance than reading was not supported”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“in Experiment 2B, when participants made an error, they tended to persist with the same error they had made at study rather than select one of the other lures.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance: Experiment 2B (Euskara words).
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the difference between Generate and Choice fell short of significance, (t(23) = 1.91, p = .069,d = .36)”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · hedged
“there was a marginal benefit when only items incorrect at study were considered”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Also stated in: § Discussion · hedged
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“final test performance differed between study methods, F(2,46) = 6.05, p = .005,p 2 = .21”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance: Experiment 2B (Euskara words).
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“correct choices were at chance (M = 53.3%,SD = 10.5, t(23) = 1.6, p = .133)”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Final test performance differed by study method, F(2,46) = 7.62, p = .001,p 2 = .25”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The difference between generating and choosing was close to significant, t (23) = 1.84, p = .079,d = .18.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance: Experiment 2B (Euskara words).
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When an incorrect choice had been selected at study, and the final test response was also wrong, the same response was selected at test at a rate numerically but not significantly higher than chance (33%, because there are 3 incorrect lures at test), M = 44.0,SD = 37.8, t(23) = 1.38, p = .180”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance: Experiment 2A (English words).
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and Generate (t(29) = 6.37, p < .001,d = .43)JOLs”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Judgments of learning: Experiment 2A (English)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Generating with feedback was superior to reading (t(29) = 4.27, p < .001,d = .40)”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance: Experiment 2A (English words).
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The advantage of generating errors over choosing incorrectly was also significant in this analysis, t(23) = 2.77, p = .011,d = .30”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance: Experiment 2B (Euskara words).
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There was a difference between study methods, F(2,46) = 6.81, p = .003,p 2 = .23”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance: Experiment 2B (Euskara words).
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This analysis revealed a similar pattern, F (2,46) = 3.33, p = .044,p 2 = .13.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The Read and Choice conditions did not differ (t(23) = .77,p = .447,d = .09).”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Correct responses to Choice items (M = 31.3%,SD = 14.5) were again above chance 2 (t(23) = 2.21, p = .046).”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Experiment 2B (Euskara words).
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At study correct generations were few (M = 6.5%,SD = 12.3)”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Experiments 2A and 2B therefore replicated the benefit of errorful generation over reading observed in Experiment 1”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance: Experiment 2B (Euskara words).
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“JOLs differed by study method (F(1.62,46.99) = 7.78, p = .002,p 2 = .21).”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Judgments of learning: Experiment 2A (English)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As in Experiment 1, there was some evidence (in Experiment 2B) that lures selected at study can interfere with selection of the correct answer at test.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance: Experiment 2B (Euskara words).
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“but there was no difference between Read and Generate (t(29) = .85,p = .400,d = .10).”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Judgments of learning: Experiment 2A (English)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and Choice items (t(23) = 2.80, p = .010,d = .42)”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
“Generation was also more beneficial than choosing when all items were considered”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“this response was significantly more likely to be the original lure when that lure had also been picked at study (M = 73.4% of incorrect responses following initial selection of a lure, SD = 30.2) than when a correct answer had been given at study (M = 35.3% of incorrect responses following an initially correct choice, SD= 33.0), t(15) = 3.44, p =.004.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Choice JOLs were again higher than both Read (t(29) = 2.58, p = .015,d = .49)”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Judgments of learning: Experiment 2A (English)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and to choosing with feedback (t(29) = 3.62, p = .001,d = .33)”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance: Experiment 2A (English words).
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Fourteen participants remembered more Generate than Read items, while only 3 showed the opposite pattern.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance: Experiment 2B (Euskara words).
plainn = 14- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Nineteen participants remembered more Generate than Read items, while only two showed the opposite pattern.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance: Experiment 2A (English words).
plainn = 19- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Again there was no significant difference between the Read and Choice conditions (t(23) = .01,p = .990,d = .002).”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We also found that participants, in their metacognitive judgments of learning, consistently failed to predict this benefit.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Errorful generation
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Correct responses to Choice items (M = 30.3%,SD = 10.6) were above chance 2 (t(29) = 2.76, p = .010).”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Experiment 2A (English words).
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When an incorrect response was given at study for an item in the Choice condition, and the final test response was also wrong, participants selected the same incorrect response at test at a rate significantly higher than the chance level of 33% (M = 59.7,SD = 41.9),t(16) = 2.59, p = .020”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance: Experiment 2B (Euskara words).
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and Generate JOLs (t(29) = 3.49, p = .002,d = .58)”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Judgments of learning: Experiment 2A (English)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Generate scores were higher than Read scores, t(23) = 2.40, p = .025,d = .56”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“as did the advantage for Generate over Read items, t(29) = 4.28, p < .001,d = .39.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance: Experiment 2A (English words).
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Generating produced better final test performance than reading, t(23) = 3.36, p = .003,d = .28.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance: Experiment 2B (Euskara words).
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Fifteen participants remembered more Generate than Read items and only three showed the reverse pattern.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Results
plainn = 15- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and Read JOLs were higher than Generate JOLs (t(29) = 2.59, p = .015,d = .17).”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Judgments of learning: Experiment 2A (English)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At study only 0.3% of Generate responses were correct.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Experiment 2A (English words).
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For the English version of the task, item JOLs differed for the three study conditions, F(2,58) = 20.73,p < .001(Figure 3A), p 2 = .42.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Judgments of learning: Experiment 2A (English)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“in Experiment 2A there was a clear benefit of generating over choosing incorrect definitions, t(29) = 3.91, p = .001,d = .46.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance: Experiment 2A (English words).
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At study only one response given in the Generate condition was correct across all participants (M = .2%,SD = 1.0).”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Experiment 2B (Euskara words).
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Indeed they erroneously judged errorful generation to be a less effective encoding method than reading or incorrect choosing.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Errorful generation
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“when both the initial and final responses were incorrect, participants picked the same incorrect answer at test as they had done at study at a rate considerably higher than chance, t(15) = 5.31, p < .001”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Choice JOLs were higher than both Read (t(29) = 3.71, p = .001,d = .27)”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Judgments of learning: Experiment 2A (English)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For items which were incorrect at study, the difference between study methods remained, F(2,58) = 10.01,p < .001,p 2 = .26”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance: Experiment 2A (English words).
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Generate items were better remembered than Read (t(23) = 3.65, p = .001,d = .47)”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
“Our first experiment revealed a benefit of generating followed by feedback over reading during the learning of unusual English words, even though generation produced many errors at study.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Results
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When all items were considered, whether correct or incorrect at study, there was a main effect of Study Method, F(2,76) = 9.17, p <.001, p 2 = .19”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and no interaction, F(2,76) = 1.57, p = .216.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“but were lower than Read JOLs, t(15) = 4.25, p = .001,d = .59”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“but here there was no difference between JOLs for Read and Choice items, t(23) = 1.38, p = .181,d = .12.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Judgments of learning: Experiment 2B (Euskara)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants' guesses were no more related to the correct definitions than the correct definitions were to each other.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In fact, the percentage of items correct at study which persisted to be correct at test (M = 77.81,SD = 26.18)was not significantly greater than the percentage of items incorrect at study which were converted to being correct at test (M = 73.05,SD = 22.99), t(39) = 1.06, p = .296,d = .19.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“no main effect of Group, F(1,38) = .19,p = .662”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants' JOLs also replicated the pattern observed previously, in that item JOLs were significantly lower in the Generate condition than in either the Read or Choice conditions.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Experiment 3 replicated the benefit of generating errors over both reading and incorrect choosing observed in our previous experiments”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and JOLs for Read items were higher than those for Choice items incorrect at study, t (15) = 2.66, p = .018,d = .40.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The response a participant had generated at study was only selected at test 13.2% of the time (SD = 21.5), which was significantly lower than the chance level of 25% (since there were 4 incorrect options), t(39) = 3.49, p < .001”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Replicating the findings of Experiment 2A and 2B, JOLs for Choice items correct at study were significantly higher than JOLs for Read items, t(39) = 7.83, p < .001.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“First, JOLs for Choice items guessed correctly at study (M = 47.4,SD = 21.8) were much higher than for items guessed incorrectly (M = 31.6,SD = 15.7),t(23) = 5.52, p < .001,d = .83(Figure 3B).”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Judgments of learning: Experiment 2B (Euskara)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“but in fact our experiments revealed no detriment of incorrect choosing by comparison with reading.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Experiment 3
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and the percentage of correct answers given for Choice items (M = 27.9,SD = 10.5) did not differ from the chance level of 25% (t(39) = 1.73, p = .091).”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There was a main effect of study method, F(2,46) = 5.09, p = .010,p 2 = .18.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Judgments of learning: Experiment 2B (Euskara)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“confirmed that this benefit persisted even though participants had the opportunity to select, at test, an incorrect guess they had generated at study”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Second, JOLs for Choice items guessed correctly at study were significantly higher than JOLs for Read items, t(23) = 4.36, p < .001.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Judgments of learning: Experiment 2B (Euskara)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“whereas an incorrectly chosen response was selected 24.0% of the time (SD = 22.6), which was no different from chance, t(39) = .27,p = .786.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“or Choice (t(23) = 4.31, p < .001,d = .50)items”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Judgments of learning: Experiment 2B (Euskara)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“no effect of Group, F(1,38) = .27,p = .605”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Replicating the findings of the English version of the task, Choice JOLs were higher than Generate JOLs, t(23) = 3.21, p = .004,d = .67”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Judgments of learning: Experiment 2B (Euskara)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Aggregate JOLs followed a similar pattern to the item JOLs (Figure 3B).”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Judgments of learning: Experiment 2B (Euskara)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Generating produced better performance than reading (t(39) = 5.22, p < .001,d = .56)”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“For the foreign language version of the task, item JOLs also differed for the three study conditions, F(2,46) = 12.60, p < .001,p 2 = .35(Figure 3B).”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Judgments of learning: Experiment 2B (Euskara)
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In the paper
“and from JOLs for Read items, t(29) = 1.74, p = .093.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Judgments of learning: Experiment 2A (English)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Secondly, JOLs for Choice items correct at study were higher than Read JOLs, t(29) = 6.62, p < .001”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Judgments of learning: Experiment 2A (English)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“At study, just one participant gave the correct response to just one Generate item”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Results
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In the paper
“Once again, participants gave lower JOLs to Generate items than to either Read (t(23) = 3.69, p = .001,d = .39)”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Judgments of learning: Experiment 2B (Euskara)
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In the paper
“but again there was an interaction between Study method and Group, F(1.62, 61.54) = 3.78, p = .037,p 2 = .09.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“JOLs for Choice items incorrect at study were higher than JOLs for Generate items.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Discussion
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In the paper
“This is in line with the findings of Experiment 2A, where participants selected their own incorrect choices with no greater frequency than other incorrect options which had appeared as lures at study.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“but incorrect choosing was no better than reading, t(39) = 1.36, p = .181,d = .17”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“As in Experiments 2A and 2B, participants gave much higher JOLs to Choice items they guessed correctly at study than to Choice items they guessed incorrectly.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This time Read JOLs were also higher than Generate JOLs, t(23) = 2.73, p = .012,d = .57.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Judgments of learning: Experiment 2B (Euskara)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In addition to the benefit of generating over reading, Experiment 2 also revealed a clear benefit of generating errors over incorrect choosing, both for rare English words and for foreign language words.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Discussion
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“with no difference between Read and Choice, t(23) = 1.34, p = .193,d = .24.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Choosing also led to higher test scores than reading, t(39) = 2.49, p = .017d = .28”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The mean similarity of the generated items to the correct definitions was .096(SD = .047).”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“When we calculated the number of times a generated or chosen item was selected at test as a percentage of just the incorrect responses at test, the comparison remained significant, t(39) = 2.21, p = .033.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“with no difference between choosing and generating, t(39) = 1.75, p = .089,d = .24.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the Choice condition participants spent significantly longer studying items which they had got wrong at study (M = 5.75 sec, SD = 3.81) than items they got right (M = 4.44, SD = 4.11), t (23) = 3.64, p < .001,d = .33.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Study time
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“This effect was observed even when participants regulated their own study time.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > General Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For the aggregate JOLs there was a main effect of Study method, F(2,76) = 4.10, p = .020,p 2 = .10(Figure 3C).”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the EP group, JOLs for Generate items were no different from JOLs for incorrect choices, t(15) = .95,p = .355,d = .17”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There was a main effect of Study Method, F(1.70, 64.44) = 7.35, p = .002,p 2 = .19”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Again, inspection of Choice JOLs in relation to study performance is illuminating and reveals the same pattern of results as in Experiment 2A.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Judgments of learning: Experiment 2B (Euskara)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Generating produced better final test performance than reading, t(39) = 5.22, p < .001,d = .56.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and Read JOLs, t(23) = 2.77, p = .011,d = .29”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Indeed, at final test, participants were more likely to select the same incorrect choice they had made at study than an incorrect response they had generated.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Discussion
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There was no effect of Group, F(1,38) = .53,p = .469,p 2 = .01”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There was a significant difference between conditions in study time, F(2, 46) = 35.44,p < .001,p 2 = .60.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Study time
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Memory for Choice items incorrect at study was, however, poorer than for Generate items.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Experiment 3
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the SP group, Generate items were given lower JOLs than both Choice items incorrect at study, t(23) = 3.04, p = .006,d = .49”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Interestingly, although participants spent longer studying Choice items which were incorrect at study than they spent on correct items, they spent even longer on Generate items incorrect at study, t(23) = 3.13, p = .005.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Study time
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and no interaction, F(1.70, 64.44) = 1.53, p = .224.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Generating errors followed by feedback was also more beneficial than incorrect choice in all experiments except the first, in which the difference fell just short of significance.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > General Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In Experiment 2B there was no relationship between JOLs and test accuracy (Fig 4B).”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Judgments of learning: Experiment 2B (Euskara)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“thirdly, JOLs for Choice items incorrect at study were indistinguishable from JOLs for Generate items incorrect at study (M = 31.3,SD = 16.7),t(29) = .77,p = .450”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Judgments of learning: Experiment 2A (English)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants were more inclined to persist with incorrectly chosen than with incorrectly generated definitions, t(39) = 2.49, p = .017.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and was less beneficial than generating, t(39) = 2.08, p = .044,d = .32”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“but there was an interaction between Study Method and Group, F(1.69, 64.22) = 3.76, p = .035,p 2 = .09.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These JOLs were lower than both Read JOLs, t(39) = 4.75, p < .001,d = .40”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The errorful generation benefit was observed whether or not the participant's initial guess appeared as one of the final test options.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > General Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants consistently gave lower JOLs to Generate items than to Read or Choice items, even when, in Experiment 3, they had the opportunity to study correct answers for as long as they liked.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Metacognition and errorful generation
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, JOLs for Choice items were heavily influenced by whether or not the correct definition had been chosen at study.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Metacognition and errorful generation
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Experiment 3 showed that participants were more likely to reproduce, at final test, an incorrect guess made at study in the Choice condition than one made in the Generate condition.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Metacognition and errorful generation
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and no interaction, F(2,208) = 2.32, p = .101.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and higher than Read JOLs, t(23) = 3.92, p = .001,d = .64”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“no effect of Group, F(1,104) = 2.72, p = .102”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Figure 4 shows that, in all experiments and within each condition, JOLs for items subsequently answered correctly at test were numerically higher than for items answered incorrectly.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In Experiment 2B, the mean gamma correlation between JOLs and test accuracy did not differ significantly from zero in any condition”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Generating (M = 75.38,SD =17.6) led to better recall than reading (M = 67.48,SD = 20.66),t(105) = 4.18, p < .001,d = .41.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There was no main effect of Group,F(1,38) .48,p = .491,p 2 = .013”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Choice JOLs were higher than both Generate, t(39) = 6.95, p < .001,d = .80,and Read JOLs”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For the EP group, Read JOLs were again higher than Generate JOLs, t(15) = 4.25, p = .001,d = .59”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our findings demonstrate that generating responses followed by feedback is helpful to memory even when many errors are generated, compared with errorless studying without generation.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Conclusion
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Again, the lowest JOLs were given to Generate items.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In Experiment 2A the mean gamma correlation was significantly higher than zero in all conditions (t(24) = 4.43, p < .001for Read; t(19) = 3.50, p = .002for Generate; and t(24) = 2.96, p = .007for Choice)”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“On the other hand they were very good at rejecting their own incorrect generations, choosing these at test at a rate significantly below chance.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > General Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Choosing (M = 72.79,SD = 21.31) was better than reading, t(105) = 2.45, p = .015,d = .25”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Without these participants, Choice performance at study was no longer significantly greater than chance in either experiment.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Conclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Resolution did not differ across conditions.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Conclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants gave the lowest JOLs to Generate items even when they could choose how long to study correct definitions”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and Choice JOLs were higher than Generate JOLs, t(15) = 2.72, p = .016,d = .59”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There was a main effect of Study method, F(2, 208) = 7.36, p = .001,p 2 = .066”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A 3 (Study Method) * 2 (Group) ANOVA revealed a main effect of study method for the item JOLs.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There was a main effect of Study Method, F(1.62, 61.54) = 6.84, p = .004,p 2 = .15(Huynh-Feldt correction).”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In fact their JOLs were heavily influenced by success or failure at study.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Conclusion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: JOLs measure participants' beliefs or predictions about their future memory performance.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For the SP group, Choice JOLs were higher than Generate JOLs, t(23) = 7.71, p < .001,d = .95”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Generating errors, then, was beneficial to memory even when there was no preexisting association which could be reinforced by corrective feedback.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > General Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Participants had no pre-existing associations with the novel words or foreign vocabulary before the experiment.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and Read JOLs were higher than Generate JOLs, t(39) = 4.75, p < .001,d = .40.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“but there was no difference between Read and Choice JOLs, t(15) = .39,p = .701,d = .07.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In Experiment 3, the mean gamma correlation between JOLs and test accuracy was significantly higher than zero in all conditions”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“with no difference between choosing and generating, t(105) = 1.20, p = .234,d = .13.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There was no difference in resolution (i.e., accuracy at monitoring the relative recallability of items) between conditions, F (2,36) = .112,p = .894”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, in all experiments, when participants made incorrect choices at study they were more likely to answer those items correctly at test than to make any type of error.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > General Discussion
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, there was no difference between conditions”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Choice JOLs were higher than both Generate, t(39) = 6.95, p < .001,d = .80,and Read JOLs”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“which were higher than Generate JOLs, t(23) = 2.77, p = .011,d = .28”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and JOLs for Choice items incorrect at study, t(39) = 3.05, p =.004, d = .38”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The testing effect is observed even when no corrective feedback is given (Allen et al., 1969;Carpenter & DeLosh, 2005, 2006;Kuo & Hirshman, 1996), so it cannot be attributed solely to more efficient processing of feedback in the test condition.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Abstract
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suggesting that the benefits of generation are not restricted to correctly generated items.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Abstract
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Generating items in response to a cue (e.g.,”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Slamecka & Graf, 1978 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Slamecka and Fevreiski observed that, even when many errors were made at study, generation led to better memory on a later test than reading.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Unsuccessful retrieval
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Slamecka & Fevreiski, 1983
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A pre-existing semantic association between cue and target is not necessary for the benefit to occur.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“A robust and highly replicated finding from both laboratory and classroom studies is that the very act of retrieving items from memory enhances memory for the tested items, the”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Roediger & Karpicke, 2006a
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Even when information to be learned is novel, errorful generation may play a powerful role in potentiating encoding of corrective feedback.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Abstract
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Berlyne and Normore (1972) found that inducing, then satisfying, curiosity by presenting a blurred picture immediately before a clear picture of the same object, led to better memory for the objects than presenting the clear picture for twice as long.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Errorful generation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berlyne and Normore (1972) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Neither the cue nor the task instructions constrain guessing, so the incorrectly generated item is unlikely to be related to either cue or target.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Errorful generation
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“items incorrectly chosen at study were strong enough to lead to perseverative errors at test when the alternatives were new lures (and the correct target)”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance: Experiment 2A (English words).
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suggesting that errors made on the initial test can interfere with accurate retrieval at final test.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Results
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Hays, Kornell, and Bjork (2013) also found evidence of interference from incorrect answers generated at study.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Errorful generation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hays, Kornell, and Bjork (2013) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we observed a benefit of generating errors over reading in all three experiments”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Errorful generation
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and a benefit of generating errors over incorrect choosing in Experiments 2A, 2B, and 3.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Errorful generation
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Howard and Kahana (2002) showed that participants tend to recall items which are semantically related to the item just recalled.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Errorful generation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Howard & Kahana, 2002 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“M. J. Kang, Hsu, Krajbich, Loewenstein, McClure, Wang, and Camerer (2009) found that the higher participants rated their curiosity about a question answered incorrectly, the more likely they were to recall the correct answer on a surprise test two weeks later.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Errorful generation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites M. J. Kang, Hsu, Krajbich, Loewenstein, McClure, Wang, and Camerer (2009) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“much research shows that discrepancies between what is expected and what occurs drive learning (e.g., Rescorla & Wagner, 1972).”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Errorful generation
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Rescorla & Wagner, 1972
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“but not strong enough to lead to such errors when the alternative test items were familiar lures (and the correct target).”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance: Experiment 2A (English words).
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“When material has been previously studied, taking an MCQ test followed by feedback has been found to yield comparable final test performance to restudying (e.g.Butler & Roediger, 2007; S. H. K. Kang, McDermott, & Roediger, 2007;McDaniel, Anderson, Derbish, & Morisette, 2007).”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Errorful generation
What the sources say
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“confirming that most definitions were unknown to participants pre-experimentally”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Put differently, items incorrectly chosen at study were strong enough to lead to perseverative errors at test when the alternatives were new lures (and the correct target), but not strong enough to lead to such errors when the alternative test items were familiar lures (and the correct target).”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance: Experiment 2A (English words).
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The higher JOLs given to Read than Generate items in both these experiments are consistent with our hypothesis that Generate items are experienced as more difficult than Read items.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Discussion
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These findings suggest that Choice JOLs were largely driven by the fortuitous making of a correct choice at study.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Judgments of learning: Experiment 2A (English)
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Together with the higher JOLs for Read than Generate items, this suggest that one factor influencing JOLs was fluency of processing at study, which was itself influenced by the outcome of the preceding event.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Judgments of learning: Experiment 2A (English)
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This may lead to greater attention being paid to the corrective feedback for Generate items.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Discussion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The fact that study time, like JOLs, was influenced by the accuracy of the participant's guess at study in the Choice condition, adds further support to our proposal that participants' perception of the difficulty of remembering an item is affected by the outcome of an event preceding study.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Study time
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For Generate items, on the other hand, participants seemed to be able to recognise and reject their own incorrect study responses, selecting them less often than the other incorrect options at test.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, this same fluency may also mean that these items are processed less deeply, leading to poorer subsequent memory.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Discussion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“These findings are also inconsistent with the other versions of the semantic relatedness hypothesis that we discussed in the introduction (e.g., Huelser & Metcalfe, Hays et al., 2013)”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Huelser & Metcalfe
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hays et al., 2013 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Participants in Experiment 2B had no prior knowledge of Euskara.
- Rests on an assumption: In Experiment 2A, the obscure English words were likely to be largely unknown to participants before the experiment.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The illusion is exaggerated in the Choice condition when the participant happens to select the correct response.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The amount of time participants in the SP group allocated to studying correct definitions also reflected this misconception.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: JOLs measure participants' beliefs or predictions about their future memory performance.
- Rests on an assumption: Study time reflects the amount of effort or attention participants devoted to encoding.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and show that a pre-existing relationship between cue and target is not necessary for the errorful generation benefit to be observed.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Discussion
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Participants in Experiment 2B had no prior knowledge of Euskara.
- Rests on an assumption: In Experiment 2A, the obscure English words were likely to be largely unknown to participants before the experiment.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This was true even when participants were allowed to study correct definitions for as long as they liked, suggesting that the low JOLs for Generate items observed in Experiment 2 did not stem from a perception that there was insufficient time to process correct feedback.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Discussion
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“a pattern which is suggestive of participants using their own performance at study as a basis for predicting their future memory performance.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Discussion
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Despite the availability, at test, of definitions participants had generated themselves, generating errors followed by studying corrective feedback led to better final test performance than either reading or incorrect choosing.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“What we can conclude from both these experiments is that participants' JOLs seemed to reflect their subjective experience at study.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Discussion
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These high Choice JOLs were largely driven by high JOLs for items guessed correctly at study, suggesting that participants used their own performance at study as a basis for predicting their future test performance.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > General Discussion
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: JOLs measure participants' beliefs or predictions about their future memory performance.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Where the generated guess is related to the cue but not to the target, the strengthening of this interfering cue-guess association may cancel out the benefit generation confers on the processing of feedback.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > General Discussion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suggesting that participants were not using a different basis for their JOLs in the Read and the Generate conditions.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The fact that these item JOLs were also lower for Generate items than for the other study methods even when participants could control how long they studied feedback, suggests that the effort involved in coming up with a response, followed by the making of an error, led to a perception that these items were more difficult to learn than items in the other conditions.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Metacognition and errorful generation
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our findings suggest that generation can benefit memory even when it yields many errors, by making the encoding of subsequent feedback more effective than when it is not preceded by a generation attempt.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > General Discussion
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“item JOLs may give us a measure of participants' perception of the ease or difficulty of learning for each individual item at the moment of study”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Metacognition and errorful generation
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: JOLs measure participants' beliefs or predictions about their future memory performance.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, generating a response is likely to activate many concepts which could, even if unrelated to the correct answer, create a distinctive context for the learning of the answer and serve as retrieval cues on a subsequent recall attempt.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > General Discussion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By creating a situation in which participants make both correct and incorrect guesses, and by collecting item by item JOLs, we have been able to show that participants' perception of their learning of correct answers is strongly affected by whether or not they happened to guess correctly at study.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Metacognition and errorful generation
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: JOLs measure participants' beliefs or predictions about their future memory performance.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“showing some ability for JOLs to predict test performance.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suggesting that their low JOLs did not stem from a perception of having insufficient time to process the corrective feedback in the Generate condition.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Instead, the act of generation per se, regardless of what is generated, makes the encoding of subsequent feedback more effective.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > General Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The benefit of errorful generation cannot, therefore, be solely due to a strengthening, through testing, of items related to the cue and the target.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > General Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Resolution was generally poor with this version of the task.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our proposal is that participants focused more attention on correct feedback in the Generate condition than in the Read or Choice conditions.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > General Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus we were able to show that the errorful generation benefit does not depend on a strengthening of pre-existing associations that enhance memory as a result of also being associated to the target.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > General Discussion
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Participants had no pre-existing associations with the novel words or foreign vocabulary before the experiment.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our design allowed us to observe a benefit to the encoding of feedback which was uncontaminated by an opposite, interfering effect of generation on the generated item itself.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > General Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Here, far from facilitating encoding of corrective feedback, options in the search set interfered with correct recognition at test to a greater extent than generated guesses did.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Metacognition and errorful generation
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This suggests that there was something about the active process of generating a response, rather than merely selecting one, which facilitated encoding of corrective feedback, even when the generated response was incorrect.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > General Discussion
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“indicating that participants were no more accurate in one condition than in another.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 75
- Probably not a substantial claim. 36
- Not yet classified. 5
- The quote only partly states this claim. 3
Some cited sources support this claim and some don’t — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Our findings are inconsistent with these proposals.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > General Discussion
What the sources say
- Disputedcites Grimaldi and Karpicke (2012) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results and discussion for Experiment 1 say the findings are consistent with a search-set account in which related candidates are activated during retrieval, and that the memory benefit occurred for related cue–target pairs but not unrelated pairs. The paper instead finds general error-correction and additional-cue theories difficult to reconcile with the results. It does not say the correct answer had to be already known during generation. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
- Partly supportedcites Huelser & Metcalfe, 2012 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Learning phase performance section reports a memory benefit after incorrect guesses, with correctly guessed trials excluded; this supports the challenge to an account requiring the correct answer to be produced during generation. But the Abstract and Experiment 2 discussion say the benefit occurred only for semantically related cue–target pairs, not unrelated pairs. Those findings do not support saying the paper is inconsistent with a proposal requiring an existing cue–target relationship. (LLM, conf=0.86)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hays et al., 2013 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Disputed
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The prevailing view is that a benefit of errorful generation only occurs when there is a pre-existing semantic association between cue and target.”
- Also stated in: § Unsuccessful retrieval · plain
“The prevailing view, then, is that errors can only be beneficial when there is a preexisting semantic relationship between cue and target.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Grimaldi & Karpicke, 2012 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The General discussion (page unavailable) reports that retrieval attempts enhanced learning for related cue–target words but not unrelated ones across three experiments. It does not establish this as the prevailing view in the literature; the Experiment 1 discussion describes other theories that predict benefits for both related and unrelated pairs. (LLM, conf=0.85)
- Partly supportedcites Huelser & Metcalfe, 2012 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results report that error generation improved retention for semantically related cue–target pairs but not for completely unrelated pairs. However, the introductory passage says the conditions under which errors help learning were not yet known, and the Abstract presents relatedness as the authors’ hypothesis rather than an established prevailing view. Our copy provides no page numbers for these passages. (LLM, conf=0.84)
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Also stated in: § Unsuccessful retrieval · plain
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Two subsequent studies using the same weak-associate paradigm (Grimaldi & Karpicke, 2012;Huelser & Metcalfe, 2012) came to the conclusion that a benefit of generating errors could only be observed when there was such a pre-existing semantic association between cue and target and not when the cue was unrelated to the target.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Unsuccessful retrieval
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Grimaldi & Karpicke, 2012 source
The Results and discussion section reports that attempting retrieval improved final recall only for related cue–target pairs, not unrelated pairs. The General discussion says this pattern occurred in all three experiments. The paper describes the initial retrieval attempts as producing frequent errors. (LLM, conf=0.92)
- Supportedcites Huelser & Metcalfe, 2012 source
The Results discussion states that generating errors enhanced retention for semantically related materials but not for completely unrelated materials. The General discussion also reports that Grimaldi and Karpicke found benefits only for semantically related items. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“in Huelser and Metcalfe's (2012) study it was significantly more common for an error made at study to be repeated at test in the unrelated than the related condition, whether the design was between subjects (Experiment 1) or within subjects (Experiment 2).”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Errorful generation
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Huelser and Metcalfe (2012) source
The Results report that in Experiment 1, initially incorrect responses appeared on the final test more often for unrelated than related materials (20% versus 5%, p < .001). The Experiment 2 error-persistence passage reports the same pattern (15% versus 7%, p < .01). The Abstract identifies Experiment 1 as between-participants and Experiment 2 as within-participants. (LLM, conf=0.95)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Therefore, Grimaldi and Karpicke's proposal that errorful generation is only beneficial for related items (because they are covertly retrieved at study and thus benefit from a classic testing effect) and not for unrelated items (because they are not retrieved at study), may not be the only possible explanation for their findings.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Errorful generation
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Grimaldi and Karpicke's (2012) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The General discussion reports that retrieval attempts enhanced learning of related targets but not unrelated targets, and explains this through activation of related candidates in a search set during the retrieval attempt. It does not propose that targets are covertly retrieved at study or that they benefit from a classic testing effect; that part of the attributed explanation is unsupported. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Not yet classified.
- Partly supported
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“Of course, we have not measured effort or attention directly but this proposal is consistent with other research suggesting that ease of processing leads to higher JOLs”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Metacognition and errorful generation
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Castel et al., 2007 source
Experiment 2 links perceived ease of processing with higher judgments of learning (JOLs) for identical pairs, and the General Discussion says their fluency contributes to overestimated recall. The citing sentence’s statement that the authors did not measure effort or attention refers to their own study, not to this source. (LLM, conf=0.91)
- Supportedcites Koriat, 2008 source
The paper’s Experiment 5 discussion (page unavailable) states that easily learned items elicit higher judgments of learning (JOLs), supporting the point attributed to this source. The remark about not measuring effort or attention describes the citing authors’ own study, not Koriat’s. (LLM, conf=0.92)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hertzog et al., 2003 source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
- Supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Experiments 2A, 2B, and 3 revealed, via metacognitive judgments of learning, that participants are strikingly unaware of this benefit, judging errorful generation to be a less effective encoding method than reading or incorrect choosing when in fact it was better.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Abstract
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and an advantage for generating errors over reading, t(23) = 3.36, p = .003,d = .28.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance: Experiment 2B (Euskara words).
Not yet classified.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“final test performance differed between study methods, F(2,58) = 9.85, p < .001,p 2 = .25”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance: Experiment 2A (English words).
Not yet classified.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and also revealed a benefit of errorful generation over incorrect choosing.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance: Experiment 2B (Euskara words).
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Aggregate JOLs showed a largely similar pattern (Figure 3A).”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Judgments of learning: Experiment 2A (English)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“generating nearly always produced an error, and the correct definition was available for much less timejust 7 s, compared with 17 s for Read trials.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants spent longer studying definitions for Read items (M = 8.02 s, SD = 4.35) than for both Generate items (M = 6.68,SD = 4.14), t(23) = 3.75, p = .001,d = .32,and Choice items (M = 5.35, SD = 3.90), t(23) = 9.25, p < .001,d = .65,and longer for Generate than for Choice items, t(23) = 4.41, p < .001,d = .33.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Study time
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and there was no difference between Read and Choice JOLs, t(23) = .28,p = .783,d = .07.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Judgments of learning: Experiment 2B (Euskara)
Not yet classified.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These high average JOLs given to Choice items were largely due to much higher JOLs for Choice items guessed correctly at study, while JOLs for items incorrect at study were no higher than JOLs for Read items”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In Experiment 2A the stimuli were obscure English words which were likely to be largely unknown to participants pre-experimentally, yet they showed the same benefit of generating over reading.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Discussion
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: In Experiment 2A, the obscure English words were likely to be largely unknown to participants before the experiment.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants' JOLs, however, showed a very different pattern, with the lowest item JOLs consistently being given to Generate items and the highest to Choice items.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > General Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In all four experiments reported here, we observed a benefit of errorful generation over reading when participants learned definitions of previously unfamiliar English words or translations of novel foreign vocabulary, even though the correct answer was displayed for a much shorter time in the Generate than in the Read condition.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > General Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our second experiment replicated the benefit of generating over reading for unusual English words that we observed in Experiment 1 and showed that it extends to the learning of foreign vocabulary.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants in Experiment 2B had no prior knowledge of Euskara, yet they showed better final test performance for items for which they had generated an incorrect guess than for items they had studied in the Read condition.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Participants in Experiment 2B had no prior knowledge of Euskara.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Twenty-seven participants (17 in the SP group, 10 in the EP group) showed a benefit of generating over reading, with only five (2 in the SP group, 3 in the EP group) showing the opposite pattern.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance
plaindirectn = 7- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The EP group gave higher aggregate JOLs to the Read condition (M = 40.3,SD = 4.3) than to the Choice (M = 34.3,SD = 5.2) or Generate (M = 29.8,SD = 3.6) conditions but the difference between the study methods fell short of significance, F(2,30) = 2.78, p = .078,p 2 = .16.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Finally, JOLs for Choice items guessed incorrectly at study were significantly lower than for Read items, t(23) = 2.38, p = .026,though with the exclusion of two participants who performed above chance at study (see footnote 2), this difference was no longer significant, t(21) = 1.98, p = .061”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Judgments of learning: Experiment 2B (Euskara)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For the SP group, the difference was significant, F(2, 46) = 5.80, p = .006,p 2 = .20.Aggregate JOLs for the Choice condition (M = 40.8,SD = 21.1) were higher than JOLs for the Generate condition (M = 26.8,SD = 17.6), t(23) = 3.46, p = .002,d = .72,and for the Read condition (M = 28.7,SD = 15.9),t(23) = 2.32, p = .030,d = .65,with no difference between Read and Generate aggregate JOLs, t(23) =.49,”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For Generate items, participants predicted poorest test performance while achieving highest performance.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants' aggregate JOLs were also highest in the Choice condition, though memory performance showed no advantage of choosing over either reading or generating.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“JOLs for Choice items correct at study were significantly higher than JOLs for Choice items incorrect at study F(1,38) = 57.6,p < .001,p 2 = .60,with no difference between the groups, F(1,38) = 1.83, p = .185,p 2 = .05,and no interaction, F(1,38) = .02,p = .901,p 2 = 0 (Figure 3C).”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There was no difference between the groups, F(1,38) = .37,p = .545,p 2 = .01,but there was an interaction between Study method and Group, F(2,76) = 3.81, p = .027,p 2 = .09.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we compared this with the average similarity of the targets to all of the other targets (M =.105, SD = .045),t(59) = 1.81, p = .076.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants' JOLs, however, showed a very different pattern from their actual test performance, with the lowest item JOLs being given to Generate items and the highest to Choice items.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Choice JOLs were higher than Generate JOLs, t(39) = 3.25, p = .002,d = .55,with no difference between Generate and Read, t(39) = 1.78, p = .083,d = .32,or between Read and Choice, t(39) = 1.27, p = .211,d = .25.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“JOLs for Choice items incorrect at study were higher than JOLs for Generate items, t(23) = 2.22, p = .037,but again this difference disappeared (t(21) = 1.89, p = .072)”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Judgments of learning: Experiment 2B (Euskara)
plainn = 2 ·- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Just as in Experiment 2, errorful generation produced better final test performance than either reading or incorrect choosing but participants failed to predict this benefit, giving the lowest JOLs to Generate items.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants spent the same amount of time studying items they would later get right at test (M = 7.58 s, SD = 3.77, for Read; M = 6.32,SD = 4.26 for Generate; M = 5.24, SD = 3.86 for Choice) as they did studying items they would later get wrong (M = 8.31, SD = 5.52, for Read; M = 6.13,SD = 3.54 for Generate; M = 4.81, SD = 3.50 for Choice).”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“but now there was no difference between JOLs for Read items and those for Choice items incorrect at study, t(39) = .11,p = .910,d =”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This was also the case in Exp 3, for the SP group: There was no difference between the three study methods, F(2,46) = .43,p = .651.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When, in Experiment 3, participants had the option, at final test, of selecting their own generated responses and their own chosen responses, they were more likely to pick a definition they had incorrectly selected at study in the Choice condition than one they had incorrectly generated in the Generate condition, which may have contributed to the advantage for generating over choosing.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > General Discussion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Incorrect guessing in the Choice condition, however, was less effective, producing equivalent memory performance to reading.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > General Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Somewhat surprisingly, and unlike in Experiments 1 and 3, participants in Experiments 2A and 2B selected the correct definition/translation at study in the Choice condition at a rate higher than chance.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Conclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and did not differ between conditions, F(2,18) = .35,p = .710.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and longer for Generate than for Choice JOLs (M = 3.40s, SD = 1.6), t(23) = 2.74, p = .012.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Mean response times were 3.51s (SD = 1.5) for the Read condition; 3.69s (SD = 2.0) for the Generate condition; and 3.59s (SD = 3.1) for the Choice condition.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, when participants made an error at test in the Choice condition, they chose their own original error at a rate no higher than chance, suggesting that incorrect choosing caused no particular detriment to memory.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > General Discussion
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and no interaction, F(2,40) = 1.46, p = .245.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, Choice JOLs for items incorrect at study were often higher (Exp 2B and Exp 3) than JOLs for Generate items, even though both involved making an error at study, suggesting that the making of an error was not the only factor affecting JOLs.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Metacognition and errorful generation
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although incorrect choosing led to lower test performance than errorful generation, it never led to worse performance than reading.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > General Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A 2 (Accuracy: correct vs. incorrect) x 3 (Study method) ANOVA showed a main effect of Study method, F(2,40) = 30.68,p < .001”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall these results demonstrate that, within each condition, participants showed some ability to predict their true likelihood of recalling each item, although this was not statistically significant in Experiment 2B.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Conclusion
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“but no effect of Accuracy, F(1,20) = .02,p = .884”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The mean time to make JOLs was 2.54s (SD = .8)in the Read condition; 2.57s (SD = .6)in the Generate condition; and 2.49s (SD = .5)in the Choice condition.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In Experiment 2A there was no difference in JOL response times between the three study conditions, F(1.29, 37.37) = .22,p = .704(Greenhouse-Geisser correction applied).”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“higher confidence ratings (what Dunlosky et al. called”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Dunlosky, Serra, Matvey and Rawson (2005) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In particular, Choice JOLs for items correct at study were always higher than JOLs for Read items, even when participants gave similar aggregate JOLs to Choice and Read items (as in Exp 2B and Exp 3), suggesting that success at study for Choice items gave participants high confidence that they would also remember those items at final test.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Metacognition and errorful generation
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: JOLs measure participants' beliefs or predictions about their future memory performance.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In Experiment 1, the number of correct generations was largely driven by the responses of one participant who generated correct guesses for over half the items in the Generate condition and three quarters in the Choice condition.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Conclusion
plaincorrelationalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In a more educationally relevant learning scenario, we found that generating errors could be helpful to memory even during the learning of novel material but that participants were strikingly unaware of this benefit.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Conclusion
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: JOLs measure participants' beliefs or predictions about their future memory performance.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As can be seen in Table 3, Choice items correct at study were indeed better remembered than Read items, in line with participants' JOLs.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Metacognition and errorful generation
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants spent longer making JOLs for Generate items (M = 3.66s, SD = 1.6) than they did for Read items (M = 3.27s, SD = 1.4), t(23) = 2.84, p = .009”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
Not yet classified.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In conclusion, generating errors benefitted vocabulary learning even when the items to be learned had no pre-existing associations, but participants did not predict this benefit.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Conclusion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Participants had no pre-existing associations with the novel words or foreign vocabulary before the experiment.
- Rests on an assumption: JOLs measure participants' beliefs or predictions about their future memory performance.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Making incorrect choices was neither harmful nor helpful to memory compared with reading.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > General Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In Experiment 2B, however, there was a significant difference in times to make JOLs between the three conditions, F(2,46) = 5.85, p = .005).”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If this is the case, this could limit the usefulness of testing in situations where errors are likely to be made, but this view is based on just a handful of recent studies, all of which have used artificial tasks and materials which are rather different from those likely to be encountered during real world learning, and it remains to be seen whether an errorful generation benefit could occur in a”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Forlano and Hoffman (1937) found that “telling” was better than “guessing” when schoolgirls learned Hebrew-English word pairs.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Errorful generation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Forlano and Hoffman (1937) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Berlyne, Carey, Lazare, Parlow, and Tiberius (1968) obtained similar findings for intentional learning of Turkish-English word pairs in adults.However, they did find an advantage of generating under incidental learning conditions”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Errorful generation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berlyne, Carey, Lazare, Parlow, and Tiberius (1968) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, although there was no overall detriment to the Choice condition by comparison with the Read condition, there was some evidence that errors made at study interfered with final test performance.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Results
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Each item appeared equally often in each condition across participants.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Materials.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“With repeated testing, superior performance has even been observed (McDaniel, Wildman, & Anderson, 2012).”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Errorful generation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites McDaniel, Wildman, & Anderson, 2012 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, any negative effect of interference seems to have been offset by a positive effect of selecting a definition from a choice of two, perhaps because this involved deeper processing than passively reading the word and its definition.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Results
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants' JOLs, then, were strikingly inaccurate: the Generate condition produced the highest recall scores but the lowest JOLs.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Judgments of learning: Experiment 2A (English)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Each subset was matched for average number of letters and syllables per word, and each subset contained the same number of nouns, verbs and adjectives.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Materials.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“People typically believe that studying is more effective than testing for previously studied material, even though the converse is true (e.g., Roediger & Karpicke, 2006b).”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Errorful generation
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Roediger & Karpicke, 2006b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Each lure was matched with the true definition or translation for number of syllables and for approximate word frequency (Kucera & Francis, 1967).”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Materials.
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kucera & Francis, 1967
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The assumption of sphericity was not met, χ 2 (2) = 9.63, p = .008,so the Huynh-Feldt correction was applied.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Judgments of learning: Experiment 2A (English)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“total trial time was equated for each of the three conditions.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Errorful generation
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Just as for the English version of the task, generating produced the highest final test scores but the lowest JOLs.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Judgments of learning: Experiment 2B (Euskara)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In Experiment 3 we equated familiarity of the lures between the three conditions.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Experiment 3
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Generating errors (which happens on almost every trial) leads to less fluency and lower JOLs, while reading leads to intermediate fluency and JOLs.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Judgments of learning: Experiment 2A (English)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If metacognitive beliefs influence study decisions, such as the decision as to how much effort needs to be applied to encoding a given item, participants may make more effort to learn definitions for items subjectively experienced as more difficult and this could be one way that even errorful generation potentiates subsequent encoding.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Discussion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These results again suggest that participants were strongly influenced by their success or failure at study, and particularly by the fortuitous selection of a correct choice.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Judgments of learning: Experiment 2B (Euskara)
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Even when they made errors, participants believed they would learn better by the Choice than the Generate method, though in reality the reverse was true.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: JOLs measure participants' beliefs or predictions about their future memory performance.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, the benefit of generating over reading in the SP group suggests that the superiority of the Generate condition was not due to displaced rehearsal of Generate items during study of Read items, since allowing participants to choose how long to study should also eliminate any need for displaced rehearsal.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Discussion
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although they spent significantly more time studying Choice items that were incorrect at study than correct ones, they spent even longer on Generate items, suggesting they believed the Choice items would be more easily learned even when they had made an error.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Discussion
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: JOLs measure participants' beliefs or predictions about their future memory performance.
- Rests on an assumption: Study time reflects the amount of effort or attention participants devoted to encoding.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our proposal is that higher JOLs in the Read and Choice conditions reflect an illusion of knowing which leads to less effort being applied to encoding, or to a less efficient encoding strategy, than for Generate items, where initial responses are always incorrect.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Discussion
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is interesting that the advantage for generating over reading was observed even though participants spent longer on Read than Generate items, suggesting that there was something about the process of generating a guess which enabled more efficient processing of the correct answer.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Discussion
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although JOLs showed some ability to predict final test scores (Figure 4A), these data should be interpreted with caution since they may be affected by item selection effects.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Judgments of learning: Experiment 2A (English)
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Against this interpretation, however, study times for Read items include time spent processing the cue word, whereas in the Generate and Choice conditions this has already taken place before timing begins, a factor which may at least partly account for the longer study times for Read items.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Discussion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“This is consistent with other research showing that greater effort during study leads both to better recall and to lower JOLs (Zaromb, Karpicke, & Roediger, 2010).”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Zaromb, Karpicke, & Roediger, 2010 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Therefore even when an incorrect choice is made, the answer, when it appears, is already familiar and may, as a result, be processed more fluently, leading to higher JOLs and shorter study times.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Discussion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Making an incorrect choice also leads to low fluency and JOLs, but correct choice -despite being fortuitous -leads to much greater fluency and JOLs.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Judgments of learning: Experiment 2A (English)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Together with the finding that JOLs were also higher for Choice items participants got right at study than for those they got wrong, these results suggest that participants' experience of success in the Choice condition led them to perceive correctly guessed items as easier to learn, both devoting less time to their study and giving them higher JOLs.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Study time
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The Read condition may even give rise to an illusion of knowing, or”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Fischhoff, 1977 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Generating errors therefore leads both to lower JOLs and to higher final test performance.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus generation can benefit memory both by strengthening existing associations and by potentiating the encoding of feedback.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > General Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This is consistent with our proposal that fluency at encoding influences participants' metacognitive judgments which in turn affect the degree of effort or attention applied to the processing of corrective feedback.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Metacognition and errorful generation
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this case, the pattern of results we observed could be due to a combination of factors.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > General Discussion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the case of one participant this left only one usable item so this participant's data were excluded.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If participants apply more effort, or more effective encoding strategies, to items they find difficult to learn this could account, at least in part, for the surprising benefit of errorful generation.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Conclusion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“these results should be treated with caution since item selection artefacts make it impossible to draw any conclusions about them.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Nelson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“This perception that Generate items were harder to learn than items studied under the other two methods may have led participants to apply more effort to the learning of corrective feedback for Generate items, consistent with research showing that studying difficult items requires greater cognitive effort which in turn enhances memory”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Metacognition and errorful generation
What the sources say
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We recomputed all the subsequent analyses with these participants excluded and none of the conclusions was changed, except (as noted in the relevant Results section) for two comparisons involving JOLs for Choice items in Experiment 2B, which come into line with the findings of Experiment 2A when these two participants are excluded.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Conclusion
plainn = 2- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In our study, aggregate JOLs given at the end of the study phase may also have reflected participants' expectations rather than their actual experience, and these too showed that participants expected memory to be poorest for items studied in the Generate condition.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Metacognition and errorful generation
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: JOLs measure participants' beliefs or predictions about their future memory performance.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These data were not captured for the EP group.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We reran the analysis with this participant excluded and the results were unaffected.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Conclusion
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our finding that JOLs were heavily influenced by success at study is theoretically interesting because it suggests that not only are people's perceptions of their learning strongly affected by fluency of processing at encoding but that this fluency is itself influenced by the production of either a correct or incorrect answer immediately prior to encoding of corrective feedback.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Metacognition and errorful generation
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A possible explanation for our findings is that participants' curiosity about the correct answer was aroused to a greater extent in the Generate than in the Choice condition, perhaps because searching for an answer in the Generate condition involves more active engagement and effort than simply selecting one in the Choice condition or perhaps because, in the Choice condition, the participant knows”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > General Discussion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In our study, where participants had to learn completely novel material, they would have known that their generated guesses were almost certain to be wrong but they may still have been highly curious to learn the correct answer, and the discrepancy between their own response and the actual answer may have induced a similar sense of surprise and led to greater attention being applied to encoding”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > General Discussion
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Rescorla & Wagner, 1972
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Participants knew their generated guesses were almost certain to be wrong.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This analysis yielded a similar pattern to that of the subset.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plainn = 107- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, participants do not realise that the extra effort involved in processing Generate feedback will lead to better memory, so they still give low JOLs to these items.”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Metacognition and errorful generation
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: JOLs measure participants' beliefs or predictions about their future memory performance.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The assumption of sphericity was not met, χ 2 (2) = 11.10,p = .004,so the Huynh-Feldt correction was applied”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Participants in Experiment 2B had no prior knowledge of Euskara.
“Participants in Experiment 2B had no prior knowledge of Euskara”
The paper relies on this without support.
In Experiment 2A, the obscure English words were likely to be largely unknown to participants before the experiment.
“In Experiment 2A the stimuli were obscure English words which were likely to be largely unknown to participants pre-experimentally”
The paper relies on this without support.
Participants had no pre-existing associations with the novel words or foreign vocabulary before the experiment.
“the stimulus materials were previously unknown to participants so there could be no pre-existing association to activate and reinforce”
The paper relies on this without support.
JOLs measure participants' beliefs or predictions about their future memory performance.
“Even when they made errors, participants believed they would learn better by the Choice than the Generate method, though in reality the reverse was true.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Study time reflects the amount of effort or attention participants devoted to encoding.
“The amount of time participants in the SP group allocated to studying correct definitions also reflected this misconception.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Test lures were equally familiar across the three study conditions.
“even though test lures were equally familiar across the three study conditions”
The paper relies on this without support.
Participants knew their generated guesses were almost certain to be wrong.
“they would have known that their generated guesses were almost certain to be wrong”
Statistics that don’t add up
Each reported p-value recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“t(39) = 3.49, p < .001”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Final test performance
Reported p < .001 · recomputed p = .001
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“t (23) = 3.64, p < .001”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Study time
Reported p < .001 · recomputed p = .001
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“t(23) = 2.21, p = .046”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Experiment 2B (Euskara words).
Reported p = .046 · recomputed p = .037
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“t(39) = 3.24, p < .002”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
Reported p < .002 · recomputed p = .002
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“t(105) = 2.45, p = .015”
§ The benefit of generating errors during learning > Additional information
Reported p = .015 · recomputed p = .016
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- Doesn’t add upt(23) = 2.21reported p = .046 · recomputed p = .037
“t(23) = 2.21, p = .046”
- Doesn’t add upt(39) = 3.49reported p < .001 · recomputed p = .001
“t(39) = 3.49, p < .001”
- Doesn’t add upt(23) = 3.64reported p < .001 · recomputed p = .001
“t (23) = 3.64, p < .001”
- Doesn’t add upt(39) = 3.24reported p < .002 · recomputed p = .002
“t(39) = 3.24, p < .002”
- Doesn’t add upt(105) = 2.45reported p = .015 · recomputed p = .016
“t(105) = 2.45, p = .015”
- Consistentt(23) = 1.6reported p = .133 · recomputed p = .123
“t(23) = 1.6, p = .133”
- ConsistentF(2, 46) = 7.62reported p = .001 · recomputed p = .001
“F(2,46) = 7.62, p = .001”
- Consistentt(23) = 3.65reported p = .001 · recomputed p = .001
“t(23) = 3.65, p = .001”
- Consistentt(23) = 2.8reported p = .01 · recomputed p = .010
“t(23) = 2.80, p = .010”
- Consistentt(23) = 0.77reported p = .447 · recomputed p = .449
“t(23) = .77,p = .447”
- ConsistentF(2, 46) = 3.33reported p = .044 · recomputed p = .045
“F (2,46) = 3.33, p = .044”
- Consistentt(23) = 2.4reported p = .025 · recomputed p = .025
“t(23) = 2.40, p = .025”
- Consistentt(23) = 1.91reported p = .069 · recomputed p = .069
“t(23) = 1.91, p = .069”
- Consistentt(23) = 0.01reported p = .99 · recomputed p = .992
“t(23) = .01,p = .990”
- Consistentt(15) = 3.44reported p = .004 · recomputed p = .004
“t(15) = 3.44, p = .004”
- Consistentt(17) = 0.78reported p = .447 · recomputed p = .446
“t(17) = .78,p = .447”
- Consistentt(15) = 5.31reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(15) = 5.31, p < .001”
- Consistentt(29) = 2.76reported p = .01 · recomputed p = .010
“t(29) = 2.76, p = .010”
- ConsistentF(2, 58) = 9.85reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(2,58) = 9.85, p < .001”
- Consistentt(29) = 4.27reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(29) = 4.27, p < .001”
- Consistentt(29) = 3.62reported p = .001 · recomputed p = .001
“t(29) = 3.62, p = .001”
- Consistentt(29) = 0.54reported p = .596 · recomputed p = .593
“t (29) = .54,p = .596”
- ConsistentF(2, 58) = 10.01reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(2,58) = 10.01,p < .001”
- Consistentt(29) = 4.28reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(29) = 4.28, p < .001”
- Consistentt(29) = 3.91reported p = .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(29) = 3.91, p = .001”
- Consistentt(29) = 0.9reported p = .373 · recomputed p = .376
“t(29) = .90,p = .373”
- Consistentt(23) = 1.38reported p = .18 · recomputed p = .181
“t(23) = 1.38, p = .180”
- ConsistentF(2, 46) = 6.05reported p = .005 · recomputed p = .005
“F(2,46) = 6.05, p = .005”
- Consistentt(23) = 3.36reported p = .003 · recomputed p = .003
“t(23) = 3.36, p = .003”
- Consistentt(23) = 1.84reported p = .079 · recomputed p = .079
“t (23) = 1.84, p = .079”
- Consistentt(23) = 1.68reported p = .106 · recomputed p = .106
“t(23) = 1.68, p = .106”
- ConsistentF(2, 46) = 6.81reported p = .003 · recomputed p = .003
“F(2,46) = 6.81, p = .003”
- Consistentt(23) = 2.77reported p = .011 · recomputed p = .011
“t(23) = 2.77, p = .011”
- Consistentt(23) = 0.14reported p = .892 · recomputed p = .890
“t(23) = .14,p = .892”
- Consistentt(16) = 2.59reported p = .02 · recomputed p = .020
“t(16) = 2.59, p = .020”
- ConsistentF(2, 58) = 20.73reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(2,58) = 20.73,p < .001”
- Consistentt(29) = 3.71reported p = .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(29) = 3.71, p = .001”
- Consistentt(29) = 6.37reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(29) = 6.37, p < .001”
- Consistentt(29) = 2.59reported p = .015 · recomputed p = .015
“t(29) = 2.59, p = .015”
- Consistentχ²(2) = 9.63reported p = .008 · recomputed p = .008
“χ 2 (2) = 9.63, p = .008”
- ConsistentF(1.62, 46.99) = 7.78reported p = .002 · recomputed p = .002
“F(1.62,46.99) = 7.78, p = .002”
- Consistentt(29) = 2.58reported p = .015 · recomputed p = .015
“t(29) = 2.58, p = .015”
- Consistentt(29) = 3.49reported p = .002 · recomputed p = .002
“t(29) = 3.49, p = .002”
- Consistentt(29) = 0.85reported p = .4 · recomputed p = .402
“t(29) = .85,p = .400”
- Consistentt(29) = 7.02reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(29) = 7.02, p < .001”
- Consistentt(29) = 6.62reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(29) = 6.62, p < .001”
- Consistentt(29) = 0.77reported p = .45 · recomputed p = .448
“t(29) = .77,p = .450”
- Consistentt(29) = 1.74reported p = .093 · recomputed p = .092
“t(29) = 1.74, p = .093”
- ConsistentF(2, 46) = 12.6reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(2,46) = 12.60, p < .001”
- Consistentt(23) = 3.69reported p = .001 · recomputed p = .001
“t(23) = 3.69, p = .001”
- Consistentt(23) = 4.31reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(23) = 4.31, p < .001”
- Consistentt(23) = 1.38reported p = .181 · recomputed p = .181
“t(23) = 1.38, p = .181”
- ConsistentF(2, 46) = 5.09reported p = .01 · recomputed p = .010
“F(2,46) = 5.09, p = .010”
- Consistentt(23) = 3.21reported p = .004 · recomputed p = .004
“t(23) = 3.21, p = .004”
- Consistentt(23) = 0.28reported p = .783 · recomputed p = .782
“t(23) = .28,p = .783”
- Consistentt(23) = 2.73reported p = .012 · recomputed p = .012
“t(23) = 2.73, p = .012”
- Consistentt(23) = 5.52reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(23) = 5.52, p < .001”
- Consistentt(23) = 4.36reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(23) = 4.36, p < .001”
- Consistentt(23) = 2.38reported p = .026 · recomputed p = .026
“t(23) = 2.38, p = .026”
- Consistentt(21) = 1.98reported p = .061 · recomputed p = .061
“t(21) = 1.98, p = .061”
- Consistentt(23) = 2.22reported p = .037 · recomputed p = .037
“t(23) = 2.22, p = .037”
- Consistentt(21) = 1.89reported p = .072 · recomputed p = .073
“t(21) = 1.89, p = .072”
- Consistentt(59) = 1.81reported p = .076 · recomputed p = .075
“t(59) = 1.81, p = .076”
- Consistentt(39) = 1.73reported p = .091 · recomputed p = .092
“t(39) = 1.73, p = .091”
- ConsistentF(2, 76) = 9.17reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(2,76) = 9.17, p < .001”
- ConsistentF(1, 38) = 0.27reported p = .605 · recomputed p = .606
“F(1,38) = .27,p = .605”
- ConsistentF(2, 76) = 1.57reported p = .216 · recomputed p = .215
“F(2,76) = 1.57, p = .216”
- Consistentt(39) = 5.22reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(39) = 5.22, p < .001”
- Consistentt(39) = 2.49reported p = .017 · recomputed p = .017
“t(39) = 2.49, p = .017”
- Consistentt(39) = 1.75reported p = .089 · recomputed p = .088
“t(39) = 1.75, p = .089”
- ConsistentF(1.7, 64.44) = 7.35reported p = .002 · recomputed p = .002
“F(1.70, 64.44) = 7.35, p = .002”
- ConsistentF(1, 38) = 0.19reported p = .662 · recomputed p = .665
“F(1,38) = .19,p = .662”
- ConsistentF(1.7, 64.44) = 1.53reported p = .224 · recomputed p = .224
“F(1.70, 64.44) = 1.53, p = .224”
- Consistentt(39) = 1.36reported p = .181 · recomputed p = .182
“t(39) = 1.36, p = .181”
- Consistentt(39) = 2.08reported p = .044 · recomputed p = .044
“t(39) = 2.08, p = .044”
- Consistentt(39) = 2.21reported p = .033 · recomputed p = .033
“t(39) = 2.21, p = .033”
- Consistentt(39) = 0.27reported p = .786 · recomputed p = .789
“t(39) = .27,p = .786”
- ConsistentF(1, 38) = 0.53reported p = .469 · recomputed p = .471
“F(1,38) = .53,p = .469”
- ConsistentF(1.62, 61.54) = 3.78reported p = .037 · recomputed p = .037
“F(1.62, 61.54) = 3.78, p = .037”
- Consistentt(23) = 3.04reported p = .006 · recomputed p = .006
“t(23) = 3.04, p = .006”
- Consistentt(23) = 1.34reported p = .193 · recomputed p = .193
“t(23) = 1.34, p = .193”
- Consistentt(15) = 0.95reported p = .355 · recomputed p = .357
“t(15) = .95,p = .355”
- Consistentt(15) = 4.25reported p = .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(15) = 4.25, p = .001”
- Consistentt(15) = 2.66reported p = .018 · recomputed p = .018
“t (15) = 2.66, p = .018”
- ConsistentF(1, 38) = 57.6reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(1,38) = 57.6,p < .001”
- ConsistentF(1, 38) = 1.83reported p = .185 · recomputed p = .184
“F(1,38) = 1.83, p = .185”
- ConsistentF(1, 38) = 0.02reported p = .901 · recomputed p = .888
“F(1,38) = .02,p = .901”
- Consistentt(39) = 7.83reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(39) = 7.83, p < .001”
- Consistentt(39) = 1.06reported p = .296 · recomputed p = .296
“t(39) = 1.06, p = .296”
- ConsistentF(2, 76) = 4.1reported p = .02 · recomputed p = .020
“F(2,76) = 4.10, p = .020”
- Consistentt(39) = 3.25reported p = .002 · recomputed p = .002
“t(39) = 3.25, p = .002”
- Consistentt(39) = 1.78reported p = .083 · recomputed p = .083
“t(39) = 1.78, p = .083”
- Consistentt(39) = 1.27reported p = .211 · recomputed p = .212
“t(39) = 1.27, p = .211”
- ConsistentF(1, 38) = 0.37reported p = .545 · recomputed p = .547
“F(1,38) = .37,p = .545”
- ConsistentF(2, 76) = 3.81reported p = .027 · recomputed p = .026
“F(2,76) = 3.81, p = .027”
- ConsistentF(2, 30) = 2.78reported p = .078 · recomputed p = .078
“F(2,30) = 2.78, p = .078”
- ConsistentF(2, 46) = 5.8reported p = .006 · recomputed p = .006
“F(2, 46) = 5.80, p = .006”
- Consistentt(23) = 3.46reported p = .002 · recomputed p = .002
“t(23) = 3.46, p = .002”
- Consistentt(23) = 2.32reported p = .03 · recomputed p = .030
“t(23) = 2.32, p = .030”
- Consistentt(23) = 0.49reported p = .632 · recomputed p = .629
“t(23) =.49, p = .632”
- ConsistentF(2, 46) = 35.44reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(2, 46) = 35.44,p < .001”
- Consistentt(23) = 3.75reported p = .001 · recomputed p = .001
“t(23) = 3.75, p = .001”
- Consistentt(23) = 9.25reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(23) = 9.25, p < .001”
- Consistentt(23) = 4.41reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(23) = 4.41, p < .001”
- Consistentt(23) = 3.13reported p = .005 · recomputed p = .005
“t(23) = 3.13, p = .005”
- Consistentt(37) = 2.44reported p = .02 · recomputed p = .020
“t(37) = 2.44, p = .020”
- ConsistentF(2, 70) = 2.67reported p = .076 · recomputed p = .076
“F (2,70) = 2.67, p = .076”
- Consistentχ²(2) = 11.1reported p = .004 · recomputed p = .004
“χ 2 (2) = 11.10,p = .004”
- ConsistentF(1.69, 64.22) = 24.43reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(1.69, 64.22) = 24.43,p < .001”
- Consistentt(39) = 6.95reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(39) = 6.95, p < .001”
- Consistentt(39) = 4.75reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(39) = 4.75, p < .001”
- ConsistentF(1.69, 64.22) = 3.76reported p = .035 · recomputed p = .035
“F(1.69, 64.22) = 3.76, p = .035”
- Consistentt(23) = 7.71reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(23) = 7.71, p < .001”
- Consistentt(23) = 3.92reported p = .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(23) = 3.92, p = .001”
- Consistentt(15) = 2.72reported p = .016 · recomputed p = .016
“t(15) = 2.72, p = .016”
- Consistentt(15) = 0.39reported p = .701 · recomputed p = .702
“t(15) = .39,p = .701”
- ConsistentF(1.62, 61.54) = 6.84reported p = .004 · recomputed p = .004
“F(1.62, 61.54) = 6.84, p = .004”
- Consistentt(39) = 3.05reported p = .004 · recomputed p = .004
“t(39) = 3.05, p = .004”
- Consistentt(39) = 0.11reported p = .91 · recomputed p = .913
“t(39) = .11,p = .910”
- ConsistentF(1.29, 37.37) = 0.22reported p = .704 · recomputed p = .704
“F(1.29, 37.37) = .22,p = .704”
- ConsistentF(2, 46) = 0.43reported p = .651 · recomputed p = .653
“F(2,46) = .43,p = .651”
- ConsistentF(2, 46) = 5.85reported p = .005 · recomputed p = .005
“F(2,46) = 5.85, p = .005”
- Consistentt(23) = 2.84reported p = .009 · recomputed p = .009
“t(23) = 2.84, p = .009”
- Consistentt(23) = 2.74reported p = .012 · recomputed p = .012
“t(23) = 2.74, p = .012”
- Consistentt(24) = 4.43reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(24) = 4.43, p < .001”
- Consistentt(19) = 3.5reported p = .002 · recomputed p = .002
“t(19) = 3.50, p = .002”
- Consistentt(24) = 2.96reported p = .007 · recomputed p = .007
“t(24) = 2.96, p = .007”
- ConsistentF(2, 36) = 0.112reported p = .894 · recomputed p = .894
“F (2,36) = .112,p = .894”
- Consistentt(16) = 0.69reported p = .501 · recomputed p = .500
“t(16) = .69,p = .501”
- Consistentt(10) = 1.28reported p = .23 · recomputed p = .229
“t(10) = 1.28, p = .230”
- Consistentt(16) = 0.99reported p = .336 · recomputed p = .337
“t(16) = .99,p = .336”
- ConsistentF(2, 18) = 0.35reported p = .71 · recomputed p = .709
“F(2,18) = .35,p = .710”
- Consistentt(38) = 7.36reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(38) = 7.36, p < .001”
- ConsistentF(2, 208) = 7.36reported p = .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(2, 208) = 7.36, p = .001”
- ConsistentF(1, 104) = 2.72reported p = .102 · recomputed p = .102
“F(1,104) = 2.72, p = .102”
- ConsistentF(2, 208) = 2.32reported p = .101 · recomputed p = .101
“F(2,208) = 2.32, p = .101”
- Consistentt(105) = 4.18reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(105) = 4.18, p < .001”
- Consistentt(105) = 1.2reported p = .234 · recomputed p = .233
“t(105) = 1.20, p = .234”
- ConsistentF(2, 40) = 30.68reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(2,40) = 30.68,p < .001”
- ConsistentF(1, 20) = 0.02reported p = .884 · recomputed p = .889
“F(1,20) = .02,p = .884”
- ConsistentF(2, 40) = 1.46reported p = .245 · recomputed p = .244
“F(2,40) = 1.46, p = .245”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Self-check results appear here once an independent check has confirmed them.
Citations
Cites
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The Critical Importance of Retrieval for Learning
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Putting Education in “Educational” Apps
Hirsh‐Pasek, K., Zosh, J. M., Golinkoff, R. M., Gray, J. H., Robb, M. B., & Kaufman, J. (2015) · Gothic.net · doi:10.1177/1529100615569721 · Cited by 1,305
“When adults generate an incorrect response and are then given feedback, they show better retention than if they either were provided with or chose a correct answer (Potts & Shanks, 2014).”
BackgroundLearning Versus Performance: An Integrative Review
Soderstrom, N. C., & Bjork, R. A. (2015) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691615569000 · Cited by 651
“…& Fevreiski, 1983) and is now garnering considerable empirical attention once again (Grimaldi & Karpicke, 2012; Hays, Kornell, & Bjork, 2013; Huelser & Metcalfe, 2012; Knight, Ball, Brewer, DeWitt, & Marsh, 2012; Kornell, Hays, & Bjork, 2009; Potts & Shanks, 2014; Yan, Yu, Garcia, & Bjork, 2014).”
BackgroundDesirable Difficulties in Vocabulary Learning
Bjork, R. A., & Kroll, J. F. (2015) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.5406/amerjpsyc.128.2.0241 · Cited by 176
“However, an interesting and provocative series of experiments by Potts and Shanks (2014) suggests that error generation might indeed facilitate such vocabulary learning. In two experiments, Potts and Shanks (2014) had English- speaking participants learn words they did not know. In one experiment the words were Englis…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialWhen generating a prediction boosts learning: The element of surprise
Brod, G., Hasselhorn, M., & Bunge, S. A. (2018) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2018.01.013 · Cited by 131
Retrieval potentiates new learning: A theoretical and meta-analytic review.
Chan, J. C. K., Meissner, C. A., & Davis, S. D. (2018) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000166 · Cited by 143
Metadata
- Authors
- Potts, R., & Shanks, D. R.
- Affiliations
- University College London (GB)
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
- Published
- 2014
- Volume
- 143
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 644-667
- ISSN
- 0096-3445 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2222
- OpenAlex
- W2032355206
- Cited by
- 166
- References
- 68
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 18 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 22 · 2020: 16 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 5
- FWCI
- 2.91
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- discovery.ucl.ac.uk
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Psychology General (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- United Kingdom Economic and Social Research Council (ES/H036237/1)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Second Language Acquisition and Learning
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Keywords
- generation effect, corrective feedback, memory encoding, vocabulary acquisition, foreign language vocabulary, metalinguistic awareness, perceived difficulty, metacognition
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Cues, Educational Measurement, Feedback, Female, Humans, Learning, Male, Memory, Mental Recall, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-09-28, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-09-28 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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