The DOI matches its Crossref record; 202 of the 203 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 1 of the 24 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Appealing to fear: A meta-analysis of fear appeal effectiveness and theories
Open accessAbstract
Fear appeals are a polarizing issue, with proponents confident in their efficacy and opponents confident that they backfire. We present the results of a comprehensive meta-analysis investigating fear appeals' effectiveness for influencing attitudes, intentions, and behaviors. We tested predictions from a large number of theories, the majority of which have never been tested meta-analytically until now. Studies were included if they contained a treatment group exposed to a fear appeal, a valid comparison group, a manipulation of depicted fear, a measure of attitudes, intentions, or behaviors concerning the targeted risk or recommended solution, and adequate statistics to calculate effect sizes. The meta-analysis included 127 articles (9% unpublished) yielding 248 independent samples (NTotal = 27,372) collected from diverse populations. Results showed a positive effect of fear appeals on attitudes, intentions, and behaviors, with the average effect on a composite index being random-effects d = 0.29. Moderation analyses based on prominent fear appeal theories showed that the effectiveness of fear appeals increased when the message included efficacy statements, depicted high susceptibility and severity, recommended one-time only (vs. repeated) behaviors, and targeted audiences that included a larger percentage of female message recipients. Overall, we conclude that (a) fear appeals are effective at positively influencing attitude, intentions, and behaviors; (b) there are very few circumstances under which they are not effective; and (c) there are no identified circumstances under which they backfire and lead to undesirable outcomes.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
1 of 24 cited sources checked · 1 supported · 0 flagged
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“these results are presented in Appendix A and are consistent with the results based on the combined measure.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Methods > Coding of Outcomes (Effect Size Calculation)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The average weighted effect size comparing outcomes for treatment to comparison groups was d = 0.29 with a 95% CI of [0.22, 0.35].”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Results > Average Effect Size and Between-Effects Variability
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The results support this hypothesis: Fear appeals were more effective when they included efficacy statements (95% CI: [0.31, 0.55]) than when they did not (95% CI: [0.13, 0.29]).”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Results > Tests of message content hypotheses
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Moderation analyses based on prominent fear appeal theories showed that the effectiveness of fear appeals increased when the message included efficacy statements, depicted high susceptibility and severity, recommended one-time only (vs. repeated) behaviors, and targeted audiences that included a larger percentage of female message recipients.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Moderation analyses based on prominent fear appeal theories showed that the effectiveness of fear appeals increased when the message included efficacy statements, depicted high susceptibility and severity, recommended one-time only (vs. repeated) behaviors, and targeted audiences that included a larger percentage of female message recipients.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Further, the current meta-analysis used a substantially larger meta-analytic database than prior analyses, thus providing us with more precision to test relevant hypotheses.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > A Message-Behavior-Audience Framework of Fear Appeals
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Moderation analyses based on prominent fear appeal theories showed that the effectiveness of fear appeals increased when the message included efficacy statements, depicted high susceptibility and severity, recommended one-time only (vs. repeated) behaviors, and targeted audiences that included a larger percentage of female message recipients.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the entire database (k = 248), 21 samples included more than two experimental groups exposed to varying levels of depicted fear.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Methods > Coding of Potential Moderators
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Moderation analyses based on prominent fear appeal theories showed that the effectiveness of fear appeals increased when the message included efficacy statements, depicted high susceptibility and severity, recommended one-time only (vs. repeated) behaviors, and targeted audiences that included a larger percentage of female message recipients.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There was also significant heterogeneity among effect sizes Q(247) = 1,287, I2 = 85.11, p < .0001.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Results > Average Effect Size and Between-Effects Variability
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
- Probably not a substantial claim. 25
- It may state two separate claims as one. 43
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“based on a well-established body of literature in persuasion demonstrating that aspects of a message’s source can influence the persuasiveness of the message (Briñol & Petty, 2009; Kumkale et al., 2010; Pornpitakpan, 2004; Wilson & Sherrell, 1993), the source of a fear appeal communication should be an important moderator for fear appeal effectiveness.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > General Discussion > Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Briñol & Petty, 2009 source
- Supportedcites Kumkale et al., 2010 source
The Discussion’s ‘Identification, Selection, and Integration of Attitude-Relevant Information’ section states that a message’s source can influence attitudes. The ‘Applied Implications’ section further reports that using a credible source can aid persuasion, particularly when recipients are forming attitudes. (LLM, conf=0.94)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Pornpitakpan, 2004 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As can be seen in Table 4, none of these methodological factors moderated fear appeal effectiveness – within each factor, 95% CIs for each factor level overlap for all levels of all factors.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Results > Moderator Tests
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The majority of samples (k = 170) included only one type of dependent measure (attitudes, intentions, or behaviors), but some samples included two types (k = 61) or all three (k = 17).”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Methods > Coding of Outcomes (Effect Size Calculation)
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Based on the 71 samples that included such manipulation checks, fear appeals were generally successful at inducing experienced fear, such that treatment groups reported more fear than comparison groups, d = 1.00 (95% CI: [0.83, 1.18]), Q(70) = 697, I2 = 90.67, p < .0001.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Results > Average Effect Size and Between-Effects Variability
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Of the 430 reports considered for inclusion in this meta-analysis, 127 met our inclusion criteria (9% unpublished), providing 248 statistically independent samples with a total N of 27,372 participants in the treatment and comparison groups combined.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Methods > Review and Inclusion Criteria
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The 248 samples included in the meta-analysis are statistically independent.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The moderate depicted fear groups (total N = 1,626) were not included in other analyses”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Methods > Coding of Potential Moderators
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 1,626Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Many fear appeals explicitly mention death (89 of the 248 studies in our meta-analysis)”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > The Recommended Behavior > Mentioning death, self-esteem relevance, and time delays
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Results showed a positive effect of fear appeals on attitudes, intentions, and behaviors, with the average effect on a composite index being random-effects d¯ = 0.29.”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“Overall, we conclude that (a) fear appeals are effective at positively influencing attitude, intentions, and behaviors”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The meta-analysis included 127 papers (9% unpublished) yielding 248 independent samples (NTotal = 27,372) collected from diverse populations.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The combined effect size was d = −0.05 with a 95% CI of [−0.34, 0.24] and Q(20) = 154 (I2 = 92.89, p < .0001).”
- Also stated in: § Tests of message content hypotheses · plain
“Therefore, outcomes did not differ for groups exposed to moderate versus high depicted fear.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Results > Tests of message content hypotheses
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Tests of message content hypotheses · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Cronbach’s alpha for the composite measure was .87, indicating that the three types of measures are highly internally consistent.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Methods > Coding of Outcomes (Effect Size Calculation)
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the number of samples with multiple attitude, intention, and behavior measures was respectively k = 18, k = 24, and k = 12”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Methods > Coding of Outcomes (Effect Size Calculation)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Separate meta-regressions for each of these three variables revealed that none were related to fear appeal effectiveness: b = −0.0029 (SE = 0.0022, p = .18, 95% CI: [−0.0072, 0.0013]), b = −0.0046 (SE = 0.0039, p = .23, 95% CI: [−0.0122, 0.0030]), and b = 0.0000 (SE = 0.0002, p = .91, 95% CI: [−0.0003, 0.0003]), respectively for publication year, average age of sample, and sample size.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Results > Moderator Tests
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, it is worth noting that fear appeals were effective for both types of recommended behaviors, and they were simply more effective for one-time behaviors.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Results > Tests of the recommended behavior hypotheses
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The results did not support these predictions, as fear appeals were equally effective when they mentioned death and recommended a self-esteem hindering behavior (95% CI: [−0.41, 0.18]), did not mention death and recommended a self-esteem hindering behavior (95% CI: [0.00, 0.96]), mentioned death and recommended a self-esteem enhancing behavior (95% CI: [0.11, 0.67]), or did not mention death and”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Results > Tests of the recommended behavior hypotheses
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The 95% CIs confirmed this prediction and indicated that fear appeals high on both moderators had positive effects for attitudes (95% CI: [0.05, 0.38]), intentions (95% CI: [0.23, 0.47]), and behaviors (95% CI: [0.24, 0.63]).”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Results > Tests of message content hypotheses
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When fear appeals mentioned death, they were equally effective for outcomes that occurred the same day (95% CI: [0.04, 0.27]), between one and fourteen days after fear appeal exposure (95% CI: [0.21, 1.37]), or more than fourteen days later (95% CI: [0.19, 0.51]).”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Results > Tests of the recommended behavior hypotheses
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The paucity of existing research addressing source characteristics and subjective experience led us to not include these as aspects of the current review framework, but they would be welcome additions in the future.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > General Discussion > Future Directions
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As mentioned, organizing the existing literature under this framework highlights the relative dearth of research addressing the behavior and audience aspects of the model relative to the message aspect.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > General Discussion > Future Directions
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although most empirical studies simply do not measure participants’ subjective states, such measures could be very informative to test a variety of interesting questions.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > General Discussion > Future Directions
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Similarly, when fear appeals did not mention death, they were equally effective for outcomes that occurred the same day (95% CI: [0.25, 0.44]), between one and fourteen days after fear appeal exposure (95% CI: [−0.29, 0.33]), or more than fourteen days later (95% CI: [0.03, 0.88]).”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Results > Tests of the recommended behavior hypotheses
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The 95% CIs indicated that fear appeals that were only high in depicted susceptibility had positive effects for intentions (95% CI: [0.15, 0.59]) and behaviors (95% CI: [0.01, 0.88]) but not attitudes (95% CI: [−0.51, 1.47]).”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Results > Tests of message content hypotheses
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A number of the hypotheses that we substantiated are relatively agnostic concerning mechanisms, and this is a serious gap in the current fear appeal literature.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > General Discussion > Future Directions
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Further, many fear appeals are delivered in the form of public service announcements, and thus there is relatively little variation across existing studies on this dimension.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > General Discussion > Future Directions
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The 95% CIs indicated that fear appeals that were only high in depicted severity had positive effects for attitudes (95% CI: [0.06, 0.37]) and intentions (95% CI: [0.20, 0.39]) but not behaviors (95% CI: [−0.08, 0.42])”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Results > Tests of message content hypotheses
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Specifically, the bulk of prior research on fear appeals has investigated questions about the message’s content – indeed, of the prior meta-analyses on fear appeals, all of them addressed questions related to the message’s content while overlooking questions related to the recommended behavior and audience.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > General Discussion > A Message-Behavior-Audience Framework of Fear Appeals
Load-bearingStrength:boosted· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We also conducted moderated meta-regressions to analyze all moderator variables; the results were the same as the 95% CI analyses and are thus not presented here.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Results > Moderator Tests
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We conducted all analyses using random- and fixed-effects analyses. As both types of analyses produced comparable results, we present the random-effects analyses.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Results
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When a study included more than one potential comparison groups, we opted to compare the highest depicted fear condition with the lowest depicted fear condition, prioritizing them in the following order: No message comparison group, neutral message comparison group, and low depicted fear comparison group.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Methods > Review and Inclusion Criteria
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As most studies did not specifically measure this variable, we designed a conservative coding scheme to ensure we could include the maximum number of reports in this analysis while avoiding misclassifications.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Methods > Coding of Potential Moderators
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Specifically, to ensure that the test concerned high depicted fear versus moderate depicted fear, we only included studies with at least three levels of depicted fear.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Results > Tests of message content hypotheses
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, the present research represents the first meta-analytic test for nine of the 16 hypotheses and the first meta-analytic test for any hypotheses related to the behavior and audience aspects of our framework.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > The Present Research
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Of the 16 fear appeal hypotheses discussed, only seven have been tested in prior meta-analyses, and all of them fall under the message aspect of our framework (Table 1).”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > The Present Research
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This finding may have implications for practitioners using fear appeals - i.e., once a message depicts moderate fear, there is no value in depicting additional fear, but depicting additional fear will not lead to negative effects.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Results > Tests of message content hypotheses
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Studies were included if they measured one or more of the following variables as an outcome in both the treatment and comparison groups: Attitudes, intentions, or behaviors.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Methods > Review and Inclusion Criteria
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“whereas messages with high depicted susceptibility positively influenced intentions and behaviors but not attitudes.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > The Content of Fear Appeals > Depicted susceptibility and severity
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites de Hoog et al., 2007
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Therefore, fear appeals have a significant and positive effect on outcomes. That is, relative to participants in comparison groups, participants in treatment groups (i.e., those exposed to relatively high levels of depicted fear) had attitudes, intentions, and behaviors that were more in line with the position advocated by the fear appeal.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Results > Average Effect Size and Between-Effects Variability
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, to our knowledge, this is the largest and most valid test of the linear and curvilinear hypotheses to date.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Results > Tests of message content hypotheses
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The rank correlation was r = −.02, p = .67. Thus, there is no evidence of retrieval or inclusion bias.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Results > Distribution of Effect Sizes
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Begg & Mazumdar, 1994 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As can be seen in the figure, the distribution appears quite symmetric with smaller variability toward the top of the plot.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Results > Distribution of Effect Sizes
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The results clearly support the weak efficacy hypothesis and disconfirm the strong efficacy hypothesis. Thus, fear appeals are effective with or without efficacy statements, but the inclusion of efficacy statements is associated with increased effectiveness.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Results > Tests of message content hypotheses
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The linear and curvilinear models have been tested in prior meta-analyses, and the linear model has consistently been supported by existing data, whereas the curvilinear model has not (e.g., Witte & Allen, 2000).”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > The Content of Fear Appeals > Amount of depicted fear
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Witte & Allen, 2000 source
Load-bearingStrength:boosted· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This decision allowed for a more stringent test of TMT hypotheses, and provided an even distribution of death versus non-death conditions, which avoids the potential confound of death messages always being about more severe topics than non-death messages.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Methods > Coding of Potential Moderators
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Studies were included if they contained an experimental research design in which a treatment group was exposed to a message designed to induce fear (i.e., a fear appeal).Studies were included if they contained a comparison group.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Methods > Review and Inclusion Criteria
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Specifically, messages with high depicted severity positively influenced attitudes, intentions, and behaviors”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > The Content of Fear Appeals > Depicted susceptibility and severity
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites de Hoog et al., 2007
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, all results should be interpreted as the effect of exposure to messages designed to depict relatively high levels of fear compared to conditions designed to depict relatively lower levels of fear (including no fear).5”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Methods > Review and Inclusion Criteria
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“As can be seen from Figure 3, the effect sizes followed a straight line and generally fell within the 95% confidence interval of the normality line, and thus there is no evidence of retrieval or inclusion bias.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Results > Distribution of Effect Sizes
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Wang & Bushman, 1999
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Studies were excluded if they did not contain appropriate statistics (e.g., F ratios, means and standard deviations, frequencies, or exact p values) for calculating an effect size representing the difference of outcomes for treatment versus comparison groups.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Methods > Review and Inclusion Criteria
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Further, the distribution of effect sizes appears to be roughly continuous and normal, which indicates a lack of inclusion bias.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Results > Distribution of Effect Sizes
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Although some meta-analytic examinations have found positive effects of fear appeals on some outcomes (Witte & Allen, 2000), others have found null effects (de Hoog et al., 2007) or even negative effects (Peters et al., 2012).”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Witte & Allen, 2000 source
- Not matchedcites de Hoog et al., 2007
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Peters et al., 2012
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Agreement for all variables was good: Categorical variables had average κ = .93 (SD = .06, minimum = .80), and continuous variables had average r = .92 (SD = .12, minimum = .73).”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Methods > Coding of Potential Moderators
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Studies were included if they experimentally manipulated depicted fear across groups.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Methods > Review and Inclusion Criteria
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Second, drawing on our previous distinction between fear appeals and fear, the subjective experience of the message recipient should be an important aspect of fear appeal communications.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > General Discussion > Future Directions
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Finally, the lack of subjective fear measures makes it difficult for researchers interested in the effects of fear (rather than fear appeals) to investigate relevant hypotheses meta-analytically.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > General Discussion > Limitations
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“based on a well-established body of literature in persuasion demonstrating that aspects of a message’s source can influence the persuasiveness of the message (Briñol & Petty, 2009; Kumkale et al., 2010; Pornpitakpan, 2004; Wilson & Sherrell, 1993), the source of a fear appeal communication should be an important moderator for fear appeal effectiveness.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > General Discussion > Future Directions
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Rather, fear appeals consistently work, and through our meta-analysis we were able to identify various factors that can enhance their effectiveness to make them work even better.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > General Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although some of the theories investigated do discuss mechanism to some degree (e.g., EPPM; Witte, 1992), our updated review of the literature is consistent with conclusions from prior reviews that these mechanisms are often under-studied and are in need of additional research (e.g., Popova, 2012).”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > General Discussion > Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Popova, 2012 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Specifically, to test hypotheses related to TMT, studies were coded as either containing the word death or not.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > General Discussion > Limitations
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, meta-analyses are a correlational research design, and thus many of the moderator analyses we conducted should be interpreted with this in mind.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > General Discussion > Future Directions
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, some studies did not include full texts for fear appeal messages, and thus it is possible that some messages did contain the word death but were nonetheless coded as not containing this word (however, studies were only coded as containing the word death if a portion of the message’s text was available that showed this word).”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > General Discussion > Limitations
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The present meta-analysis only included experimental studies that compared treatment and comparison groups, and thus internal validity is good when considering the effects of relatively high versus low depicted fear.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > General Discussion > Future Directions
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, when testing all three hypotheses, fear appeals generally had positive effects on attitudes, intentions, and behaviors when they were high in depicted severity and/or susceptibility.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > Results > Tests of message content hypotheses
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“First, as discussed in the introduction, the present results concern fear appeals rather than fear. That is, our meta-analysis did not compare people who were subjectively afraid to people who were subjectively unafraid, but rather we compared groups that were exposed to more or less fear inducing content.”
§ Appealing to fear: A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeal Effectiveness and Theories > General Discussion > Limitations
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
The 248 samples included in the meta-analysis are statistically independent.
“providing 248 statistically independent samples”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Results from a comprehensive meta-analysis by Tannenbaum et al. [35] showed that fear appeals are particularly effective at positively influencing attitudes, intentions, and behaviour under specific circumstances.”
From Misinformation lingers in memory: Failure of three pro-vaccination strategies (2017) · cites this paper as [35]
Citations
Cites
A Mathematical Theory of Communication
Shannon, C. E. (1948) · The MIT Press eBooks · doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1948.tb00917.x · Cited by 50,201
Conducting Meta-Analyses in R with the metafor Package
Viechtbauer, W. (2010) · Journal of Statistical Software · doi:10.18637/jss.v036.i03 · Cited by 20,464
The Framing of Decisions and the Psychology of Choice
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1981) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.7455683 · Cited by 18,497 · cited 2×
“…theory (Robertson, 1975; Rothman, Martino, Bedell, Detweiler, & Salovey, 1999), prospect theory (Rothman et al., 1999; Rothman & Salovey, 1997; Tversky & Kahneman, 1981), and terror management theory (Goldenberg & Arndt, 2008; Pyszczynski, Greenberg, & Solomon, 1999; Shehryar & Hunt, 2005;…”
BackgroundOperating characteristics of a rank correlation test for publication bias
Begg, C. B., & Mazumdar, M. (1994) · Biometrics · doi:10.2307/2533446 · Cited by 16,955
Stages and processes of self-change of smoking: Toward an integrative model of change.
Prochaska, J. O., & DiClemente, C. C. (1983) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.51.3.390 · Cited by 9,098 · cited 3×
“In contrast, late stage individuals are already committed to behavior change and do not require such motivational appeals (DiClemente et al., 1991; Nabi et al., 2008; Prochaska & DiClemente, 1983; Prochaska et al., 1992).”
BackgroundIn search of how people change: Applications to addictive behaviors.
Prochaska, J. O., DiClemente, C. C., & Norcross, J. C. (1992) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.47.9.1102 · Cited by 8,596
The Transtheoretical Model of Health Behavior Change.
Prochaska, J. O., & Velicer, W. F. (1997) · American Journal of Health Promotion · doi:10.4278/0890-1171-12.1.38 · Cited by 7,782 · cited 2×
“…behaviors can be classified as belonging to an early stage (the model's precontemplation , contemplation, and preparation stages) or a late stage (the model's action and maintenance stages) in the change process (Prochaska & DiClemente, 1983; Prochaska et al., 1992; Prochaska & Velicer, 1997).”
BackgroundHistorical Origins of the Health Belief Model
Rosenstock, I. M. (1974) · Health Education Monographs · doi:10.1177/109019817400200403 · Cited by 6,116 · cited 6×
“To produce d for any ORs, we divided the log of the OR by 1.81 (Haddock, Rindskopf, & Shadish, 1998; Hasselblad & Hedges, 1995).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialRethinking individualism and collectivism: Evaluation of theoretical assumptions and meta-analyses.
Oyserman, D., Coon, H. M., & Kemmelmeier, M. (2002) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.128.1.3 · Cited by 5,758
Handbook of Personality : Theory and Research
Pervin, L. A. (1992) · Cited by 4,543
Flagged first, then by citations
1 of the 203 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 801–900 of 1,183
Maaoui, F., Arboix-Calas, F., Safra, I., et al. (2025) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-025-24536-9 · Cited by 2
“Proponents of fear appeals, such as the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2014) [41], argue that they have a positive effect on attitudes, intentions, and behaviors [42].”
Thaler, M. (2025) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.1086/739296 · Cited by 2
Meislová, M. B. (2025) · Parliamentary Affairs · doi:10.1093/pa/gsaf039 · Cited by 2
Oh, H., Lee, E., Shin, S., Lee, K., Pyun, M., & Lim, H. (2026) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3772318.3791492 · Cited by 4
“Fear-appeal Fear-appeal research similarly shows that high-threat messages can backfire when threat appraisal is not matched with adequate coping efficacy, resulting in avoidance rather than protective action [88, 98].”
Stereotype und negative Emotionen in Marketing und Kommunikation
Papen, M.-C. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-24217-6_14 · Cited by 5
Designing Sustainable Social Media Health Communication Campaigns for Promoting Rare Diseases
Koinig, I., & Diehl, S. (2020) · Advances in medical technologies and clinical practice book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-2088-8.ch003 · Cited by 2
Skurka, C., Reynolds‐Tylus, T., Quick, B. L., et al. (2020) · Journal of Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10810730.2021.1885084 · Cited by 2
“Such a manipulation resembles those used in threat appeal studies to increase perceived susceptibility (Tannenbaum et al., 2015; Witte & Allen, 2000).”
MethodGadiraju, P., Dehury, R. K., Singh, P., et al. (2022) · Journal of Education and Health Promotion · doi:10.4103/jehp.jehp_453_22 · Cited by 2
“It has also been found that the fear of cancer changes the behavior and perception of people.[7] The behavioral and lifestyle interventions toward cancer screening and physician consultation can prevent cancer risk.”
BackgroundClark, C. J. (2016) · Digital Commons - USU (Utah State University) · doi:10.26076/0337-6f81 · Cited by 2
Interventional cardiology: from balloons to stents … and back?
Ashman, D. (2018) · British Journal of Nursing · doi:10.12968/bjon.2018.27.16.928 · Cited by 2
Eriyanto, E., & Zarkasih, I. R. (2018) · Jurnal Komunikasi Indonesia · doi:10.7454/jki.v7i1.9918 · Cited by 2
Halim, R. E. (2019) · Journal of Asian Finance Economics and Business · doi:10.13106/jafeb.2019.vol6.no3.193 · Cited by 2
Behavior Change in Community Contexts
Trickett, E. J., & Paterson, S. E. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108677318.028 · Cited by 2
MODEL OF PSYCHOLOGICAL INFLUENCE IN SOCIAL MEDIA
Занковский, А. Н., & Латынов, В. В. (2021) · Институт психологии Российской Академии Наук Организационная психология и психология труда · doi:10.38098/ipran.opwp.2021.18.1.001 · Cited by 1
Kamu Spotlarına Covid-19 Yansıması: Sağlık Bakanlığının Sosyal Medya Platformlarının İncelenmesi
Yeniçıktı, N. T., Tarakcı, H. N., & GAZAZ, D. C. (2021) · Akdeniz Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Dergisi · doi:10.31123/akil.888927 · Cited by 2
Yang, C. Y., Kim, G., & Jeong, Y. (2021) · Health Marketing Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07359683.2021.1997511 · Cited by 2
“Such a difference in threat perception may have heightened behavioral intentions for colon cancer given the strong meta-analytic evidence of the positive relationship between perceived threat and persuasive outcomes (e.g., attitude and behavioral intentions; Tannenbaum et al., 2015).”
BackgroundTurner, M. M., Choung, H., Bui, Q.-H. H. M., et al. (2022) · JMIR Formative Research · doi:10.2196/26122 · Cited by 2
“A meta-analysis investigated fear appeal’s effectiveness for influencing attitudes, intentions, or behaviors and found that fear appeals are effective [20].”
BackgroundZalech, M. (2021) · Baltic Journal of Health and Physical Activity · doi:10.29359/bjhpa.2021.suppl.2.07 · Cited by 2
Social Facilitation in Fear Appeals Creates Positive Affect but Inhibits Healthy Eating Intentions
Bailey, R. L., Wang, T. G., Liu, J., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.838471 · Cited by 2
Modelle gesundheitsbezogenen Handelns und Verhaltensänderung
Lippke, S., Schüz, B., & Godde, B. (2019) · Springer Reference Pflege, Therapie, Gesundheit · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-55793-8_8-1 · Cited by 2
Muntafi, M. S. (2022) · Psikostudia Jurnal Psikologi · doi:10.30872/psikostudia.v11i1.7249 · Cited by 2
Ki, J., & Yoon, D. K. (2023) · International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction · doi:10.1016/j.ijdrr.2023.103773 · Cited by 2
An, S. K., Kumphai, P., Gam, H. J., & Lee, D. D. (2023) · Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal · doi:10.1111/fcsr.12494 · Cited by 2
Selling Who You Know: How We Justify Sharing Others’ Data
Ruckelshausen, S., Kamleitner, B., & Mitchell, V. (2024) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-024-05649-4 · Cited by 2
“Yet another approach to combat a “nothing happened” mentality is fear of repercussions, although prior literature suggests that these appeals need to be particularly well crafted to work (for specific recommendations see Tannenbaum et al., 2015).”
Lamy, L., Guegan, J., Fischer‐Lokou, J., & Guéguen, N. (2021) · Health Psychology Report · doi:10.5114/hpr.2021.111084 · Cited by 2
“A recent meta-analysis, however, concluded on the overall effectiveness of fear appeals on attitudes, intentions, and behaviors (Tannenbaum et al., 2015).”
BackgroundBrun, C., Zerhouni, O., Houtin, L., Akinyemi, A., Aimé, C., & Boudesseul, J. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/56sz9 · Cited by 2
MacFarlane, D., Hurlstone, M. J., Ecker, U. K. H., Ferraro, P. J., van der Linden, S., Veríssimo, D., Wan, A. K. Y., Burgess, G., Chen, F., Hall, W., et al. (2020) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/8935b · Cited by 2
Preventing Payments Fraud in the FinTech Era: New Evidence from a Behavioural ExperimentPreprint
Akesson, J., Gathergood, J., & Quispe-Torreblanca, E. G. (2023) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4532757 · Cited by 2
MacEachern, T., Haizelden, J., & Stellefson, M. (2024) · American Journal of Health Education · doi:10.1080/19325037.2024.2338082 · Cited by 2
“Individuals first assess the threat, including its perceived severity and probability of occurrence, then evaluate the coping strategies, focusing on their perceived effectiveness and feasibility of execution (Tannenbaum et al., 2015).”
BackgroundClimate Change and Challenges for Individuals with Disability
Lippke, S., & Rinn, R. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-40858-8_265-1 · Cited by 3
Deconstructing the nature of strategic instructional communication in risk and crisis contexts
Sellnow, D. D. (2025) · Crisis and Risk Communication · doi:10.1080/29986907.2025.2581007 · Cited by 2
Comunicação pró-ambiental: estratégias informacionais, comportamentais e de framing em cartazes
Cruz, L. A. G., & Iglesias, F. (2017) · Psico · doi:10.15448/1980-8623.2017.4.25589 · Cited by 1
“O framing negativo, por sua vez, pode ser relacionado a um conjunto de estratégias, interpretáveis por modelos explicativos semelhantes, sob o nome de apelos de medo e de culpa (Tannenbaum et al., 2015).”
BackgroundIntroduction: Promises and Perils of eHealth
Hale, T. M., Chou, W. S., Cotten, S. R., & Khilnani, A. (2018) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/s2050-206020180000015007 · Cited by 1
Cost-Effectiveness Evaluations of Behavior Change Interventions
Wang, T., Downes, M., Byrnes, J., & Scuffham, P. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108677318.026 · Cited by 1
Demos, K. E., Leblond, T. L., DUNSIGER, S. I., Rothman, A. J., & Wing, R. R. (2021) · Obesity · doi:10.1002/oby.23337 · Cited by 1
AĞCA, M. A., KANDEMİR, M. Ç., & Avşaroğlu, S. (2022) · MANAS Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi · doi:10.33206/mjss.864384 · Cited by 1
Yan, X., Lapinski, M., Gore, M. L., Neuberger, L., & Grayson-Sneed, K. A. (2022) · Human Dimensions of Wildlife · doi:10.1080/10871209.2022.2101720 · Cited by 1
“That is, a great deal is known about how to shift perceived severity and susceptibility through communication (Tannenbaum et al., 2015; Witte, 1992) and our model would suggest that this can lead to more positive attitudes and behaviors related to sharks.”
Izawa, S., Yamada, K. C., Nakamura‐Taira, N., Kameyama, R., & Tanoue, A. (2023) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-023-05364-9 · Cited by 1
“…127 articles in various domains such as dental hygiene, driving safety, HIV and STDs, drinking and drugs, smoking, and cancer prevention, reported that fear appeals had a significant and positive effect on information receivers’ attitudes, intentions, and behaviors (Tannenbaum et al., 2015).”
InfluentialPaniuta, A., Han, Y.-H., & Hsu, S.-H. (2024) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-60901-5_10 · Cited by 1
Bodenmann, S., & Caltabiano, M. L. (2024) · Australian Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00050067.2024.2374926 · Cited by 1
“Meta-analytic findings (Tannenbaum et al., 2015) affirm that fear appeals can be effective on their own, but work optimally when paired with an efficacy message.”
Eco-Game Design Lessons for Climate Communication: Augmenting Players’ Environmentalism
Daiiani, M., & Sweetser, P. (2024) · IEEE Conference on Games (CoG) · doi:10.1109/cog60054.2024.10645632 · Cited by 1
“3) The necessity of alarming hints in eco-games: Inducing apprehensions has been a long-standing communication designed to generate attitude/behaviour change [45].”
BackgroundKim, K., Niederdeppe, J., Kalaji, M., Scolere, L., Porticella, N., Mathios, A., Avery, R. J., Dorf, M., Safi, A. G., & Byrne, S. E. (2024) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2024.2394260 · Cited by 1
“Because exposure to health-related messages may evoke fear, the role of this emotion in persuasion has been the subject of extensive research across numerous health contexts, including cancer, sexually transmitted diseases, and tobacco-related illness (Tannenbaum et al., 2015).”
Ramanadhan, S., Roberts, J., Salvia, M., et al. (2024) · BMJ Public Health · doi:10.1136/bmjph-2024-001106 · Cited by 1
“50 However, fear appeals research tends to focus on the effects of fear appeals on health issues of interest.”
Shen, L., & Li, S. (2025) · Western Journal of Communication · doi:10.1080/10570314.2025.2468395 · Cited by 1
“The results for H3a were compatible with the fear appeal literature (e.g., Tannenbaum et al., 2015) and the protection motivation theory (R. W. Rogers & Prentice-Dunn, 1997) in particular: Fear should be negatively associated with message fatigue but positively associated with protection motivation…”
Zhou, M., Ramírez, A. S., Schillinger, D., et al. (2025) · Health Education & Behavior · doi:10.1177/10901981251341294 · Cited by 1
“Previous research has found that messaging emphasizing autonomy and collective efficacy, rather than threats, tends to minimize psychological resistance (Tannenbaum et al., 2015).”
Lee, Y.-I., & Trim, P. R. J. (2025) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2025.2507689 · Cited by 1
Sun, Y., Vidaña-Pérez, D., Xiong, L., Niederdeppe, J., Ferguson, S. G., Kim, M., Yang, C.-H., Petillo, S., Hammond, D. G., Hackworth, E. E., et al. (2025) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2025.108347 · Cited by 1
“Although fear-based messages alone can prompt desired behaviors, adding efficacy information can enhance their impact by generating reinforcing confidence in protective actions and their benefits (Nabi and Myrick, 2019; Tannenbaum et al., 2015; Bigsby and Albarracín, 2022).”
Sexual Identity-Related Shame as a Barrier to Mpox Prevention Among Gay and Bisexual Men
Lake, S., Zhao, X., & Ma, R. (2025) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2025.2524434 · Cited by 1
“The positive relationship between fear and perceived risk has made it a common and effective tool in cam-paigns to promote detection and prevention behaviors such as vaccination, cancer screening, and condom use (Smerecnik & Ruiter, 2010; Tannenbaum et al., 2015).”
The resonance of messages about wastewater reuse: recommendations for environmental communication
Verhoest, P., Bauwens, J. R., Gao, Y., Elskens, M. T., & Huysmans, M. (2025) · Environmental Science Advances · doi:10.1039/d5va00065c · Cited by 1
The Psychology Underlying Media-Based Persuasion
Nabi, R. L., Moyer‐Gusé, E., & Miller, L. B. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780197689875.013.0010 · Cited by 1
Furman, C. R., Standen, E. C., Diem, S. J., & Rothman, A. J. (2025) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2025.2552228 · Cited by 1
Chao, F., Zhou, Q., Yu, G., & Sun, Y. (2025) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-025-05772-1 · Cited by 2
“Research suggests that fear can positively in fl uence consumer attitudes, behaviours, and intentions (Tannenbaum et al. 2015).”
Parveen, S., Chang, W.-J., McHugh, P., & Vellinga, A. (2025) · Frontiers in Digital Health · doi:10.3389/fdgth.2025.1564584 · Cited by 1
“Previous studies have also highlighted the use of fear-based messaging to effectively communicate public health risks, which is consistent with the observed increase in Fear/Shock/ Disgust posts (28, 29).”
Chen, T., Dai, M., & Niederdeppe, J. (2025) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2025.2562353 · Cited by 1
“Results from a previous meta-analysis ( k = 127; Tannenbaum et al., 2015) showed that messages with threat and efficacy content had positive effects on attitudes, intentions, and behaviors.”
Jing, Y., & Xiao, X. (2025) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2025.2571886 · Cited by 1
“…increasing influence on attitude, intentions, and behaviors, with stronger levels of fear expected to be more effective than moderate ones (Tannenbaum et al., 2015; Witte & Allen, 2000) and calls for deeper exploration of cultural moderators, such as cultural identity strength, social…”
Li, J., & Shi, C. (2025) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2025.1661328 · Cited by 2
Ribić, A., Martinić, M., Čaić, M., Šćepović-Ljucović, M., Šaravanja, I., Anić, B., & Mayer, M. (2025) · Rheumatology International · doi:10.1007/s00296-025-06031-x · Cited by 1
“Public campaigns for vaccination in primary care that included behavioural nudges, reminders, provider recommendations, and patient education reliably raised vaccination uptake, while fear appeals worked best when paired with clear action steps [ 46 – 48].”
The nonlinear effect of consumer embarrassment on avoidance: A meta‐analysis
Ziegler, A. H., Peloza, J., & Vincent, L. H. (2025) · Journal of Consumer Psychology · doi:10.1002/jcpy.70015 · Cited by 1
Wakeman, M., Tesfaye, L., Gregory, T., Leahy, E., Baskin, G., Gruse, G., Kendrick, B., & El‐Toukhy, S. (2025) · JMIR Human Factors · doi:10.2196/76804 · Cited by 1
“…discussions reflect debates on the use of fear appeals (ie, messages that include a threat) and gain-versus loss-framed messages (ie, messages that emphasize benefits of compliance with message recommendations or losses associated with noncompliance, respectively) in health interventions [69, 70].”
The effects of fear and hope appeals on climate change risk perception
Vrselja, I., Pandžić, M., & Batinić, L. (2026) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.2026.2613250 · Cited by 3
Experimental Tests of an Affective Pathway to Pro-Environmental Intentions
Klackl, J., Uhl-Haedicke, I., Fowles, T., & Jonas, E. (2026) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su18041826 · Cited by 1
Walling, B. M., Desens, L., Howard, V., O’Neill, R., Scannell, D., Giammarino, M., Elson, S. B., & Rosen, S. L. (2026) · Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.3389/frai.2026.1715883 · Cited by 1
“This finding is consistent with past research (with human participants instead of simulated agents) showing that people are more likely to act when they understand the threat and also know what steps to take (Ajzen, 2020; Tannenbaum et al., 2015; Witte and Allen, 2000).”
InfluentialPolio Beyond the Drop: Rethinking Vaccine Hesitancy in Urdu Tweets Beyond Western Behavioral Models
Awais, M. (2026) · Social Science Computer Review · doi:10.1177/08944393261426533 · Cited by 2
Upadhyay, R. K., Barman, D., & Bhardwaj, K. (2026) · Nonlinear Dynamics · doi:10.1007/s11071-026-12223-2 · Cited by 2
Yang, S., Sun, L., Tao, R., Suh, Y. J., Duan, Z., Sun, Y., Wang, Y., & Liu, J. (2026) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2026.2661405 · Cited by 1
Bünzli, F., & Eppler, M. J. (2026) · Communications Sustainability · doi:10.1038/s44458-026-00092-0 · Cited by 2
CSAM Desistance via AI, Chatbots and Automated Warnings
Watters, P., Scanlan, J., Prichard, J., & Wortley, R. (2026) · Electronics · doi:10.3390/electronics15112281 · Cited by 1
Zhang, Y., & Sun, Y.-Q. (2026) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-026-09581-w · Cited by 1
“…users to take specific actions to reconcile the discrepancy between their initial objectives and the current circumstances (McLaren & Steuber, 2012; Tannenbaum et al., 2015 ), the overburden associated with sustained effort may lead them to experience corresponding information and social overload…”
How parents decide whether to have genomic newborn screening: experiences from BabyScreen+
Kanga‐Parabia, A., Tutty, E., Kugenthiran, N., et al. (2026) · European Journal of Human Genetics · doi:10.1038/s41431-026-02159-x · Cited by 1
Bontenbal, I., Ndomo, Q., & Kakko, H. (2026) · Journal of Environmental Planning and Management · doi:10.1080/09640568.2026.2686331 · Cited by 1
Ochilov, U., Sirojiddinov, S., Kasimova, R. R., et al. (2026) · Genealogy · doi:10.3390/genealogy10030081 · Cited by 1
Informing on individual cardiovascular risk: from wishful thinking to hard facts
Danchin, N., Lahlou‐Laforêt, K., & Lemogne, C. (2019) · Heart · doi:10.1136/heartjnl-2019-314814 · Cited by 1
“2 Therefore, one may wonder whether this lack of emotional impact could explain the lack of effect of information on behaviours.”
Wat leert onderzoek naar overtuigende teksten over het ontwerpen van overtuigender teksten?
Hoeken, H. (2019) · Tijdschrift voor taalbeheersing · doi:10.5117/tvt2019.1.008.hoek · Cited by 1
Predictors of Undergoing Colonoscopy, Does Time Horizon Matter?
Olchowska-Kotala, A., & Bajcar, B. (2020) · The Journal of Primary Prevention · doi:10.1007/s10935-020-00581-5 · Cited by 1
Doppelganger-Inspired Change Effect Model of Faculty Global Cultural Competency
Bawa, P. (2021) · International Journal of Bias Identity and Diversities in Education · doi:10.4018/ijbide.2021070102 · Cited by 1
van Leeuwen, F., & Petersen, M. B. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780197544754.013.31 · Cited by 1
Harrison, C., Babiak, K. M., Tingle, J. K., Dickens, J. R., Griffin, W., & Bukstein, S. J. (2021) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003213673-13 · Cited by 1
Modelle gesundheitsbezogenen Handelns und Verhaltensänderung
Lippke, S., Schüz, B., & Godde, B. (2021) · Springer Reference Pflege, Therapie, Gesundheit · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-62426-5_8 · Cited by 1
Perceptions of Digital Nudging for Cervical Testing: A Comparison Four Nudge Types
Ytterland, T. B., Fagernes, S., & Sandnes, F. E. (2022) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-05028-2_14 · Cited by 1
McFarlane, S. J., Morgan, S. E., & Carcioppolo, N. (2022) · Frontiers in Oncology · doi:10.3389/fonc.2022.935704 · Cited by 1
“The results of another meta-analysis revealed that not only were fear appeals effective but also they did not backfire and cause unintended consequences, based on the studies in the review (32).”
BackgroundHygiene, J. O. P. M. A. (2022) · PubMed Central · doi:10.15167/2421-4248/jpmh2022.63.2s2 · Cited by 1
Modelle gesundheitsbezogenen Handelns und Verhaltensänderung
Lippke, S., & Schüz, B. (2022) · Springer Reference Pflege, Therapie, Gesundheit · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-65219-0_29 · Cited by 1
Xiong, X., Hu, R. X., Chen, C., & Ning, W. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1147530 · Cited by 1
Schieferdecker, D. (2023) · Communication Studies · doi:10.1080/10510974.2023.2224405 · Cited by 1
“These effects have been established in various meta-analyses (Tannenbaum et al., 2015; Witte & Allen, 2000).”
BackgroundHow College Students React to COVID Vaccine PSAs: An Experimental Investigation
Fridkin, K. L., Horsting, T., Brown, A. L., & Williams, A. M. (2023) · American Politics Research · doi:10.1177/1532673x231220650 · Cited by 2
“Fear is included since fear is the most studied emotion in previous work on the impact of PSAs on attitudes and behaviors (e.g., Tannenbaum et al., 2015).”
BackgroundDewabrata, L. M., Surjaningrum, E. R., Chusairi, A., et al. (2023) · Psikoborneo Jurnal Ilmiah Psikologi · doi:10.30872/psikoborneo.v11i4.12051 · Cited by 1
Scudder, J. N., & DeBeck, D. P. (2023) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines12010047 · Cited by 1
“Much academic research regarding fear has failed to explicate its complexity, because it has often been considered in controlled conditions such as experimental studies of fear appeals (see the meta-analyses of Bigsby and Albarrac í n [9], Tannenbaum et al. [10] and Witte and Allen [11].”
BackgroundPeixoto, M. M. D. C. L., Gonçalves, C. A., & Camilo-da-Silva, E. (2024) · ReMark - Revista Brasileira de Marketing · doi:10.5585/remark.v23i1.23559 · Cited by 2
Rubin, G. J., Smith, L. E., Amlôt, R., et al. (2024) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2024-088027 · Cited by 1
Button, D., Ophoff, J., Irons, A. D., et al. (2024) · IFIP advances in information and communication technology · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-72563-0_8 · Cited by 1
Mukai, T., & Watamura, E. (2024) · THE JAPANESE JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY · doi:10.2130/jjesp.2406 · Cited by 1
Skurka, C., Romero‐Canyas, R., Joo, H. H., & Niederdeppe, J. (2025) · Science Communication · doi:10.1177/10755470251316777 · Cited by 3
“The most recent meta-analyses on threat and humor appeals indicate these appeals have small-to-modest effects on persuasion (Tannenbaum et al., 2015; Walter et al., 2018), yet these meta-analytic estimates are based on findings from experiments where exposure to emotional appeals is required.”
Mickelberg, A. J., Walker, B., Ecker, U. K. H., Howe, P. D. L., Perfors, A., & Fay, N. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0322045 · Cited by 1
Chow, K., Zenone, M. A., Kenworthy, N., Merid, B., & Maani, N. (2025) · PLOS Global Public Health · doi:10.1371/journal.pgph.0003244 · Cited by 1
“The use of the hypothetical exploits the psychological susceptibility to fear the unknown, encouraging the preference to stay within what is known [48]—or, within the current system.”
Scaring the Hell Out of You: Scare-Tactics, Christian Horror Houses, and the Apocalypse of John
Stewart, A. E. (2017) · Journal of Youth and Theology · doi:10.1163/24055093-01602005 · Cited by 1
Mensah, O. E., Sarfo-Adu, K., & Afful, J. B. A. (2018) · AFRREV IJAH An International Journal of Arts and Humanities · doi:10.4314/ijah.v7i4.1 · Cited by 1
“Among the strategies include hate speech (Osewe-Akubor, 2015; Lau & Rouvner 2009); emotions (Melaine & Hepler, 2015; Goldman, 2011); slogans ((Asah-Asante, 2015; Bartlett & Rayner, 2014); and propaganda (Ayi, 2013; Ngoa, 2011; Omozura & Ezejideaku, 2009).”
Colin, C., & Droulers, O. (2019) · Décisions Marketing · doi:10.7193/dm.096.89.104 · Cited by 1
Boudesseul, J., Vieira, L., & Bègue, L. (2020) · Evolutionary Psychology · doi:10.1177/1474704919897602 · Cited by 1
Li, S., Liu, P., & Guo, Y. J. (2020) · Advances in intelligent systems and computing · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-49829-0_47 · Cited by 1
The Ethics of Dementia Risk Reduction
Eifert, E. K. (2021) · Advances in neuroethics · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-62073-8_1 · Cited by 1
Metadata
- Authors
- Tannenbaum, M. B., Hepler, J., Zimmerman, R. S., Saul, L., Jacobs, S., Wilson, K., & Albarracín, D.
- Affiliations
- University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (US)
- University of Nevada, Reno (US)
- University of Missouri–St. Louis (US)
- Virginia Commonwealth University (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 2015-11
- Volume
- 141
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1178-1204
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- PMC
- PMC5789790
- OpenAlex
- W2238586764
- Semantic Scholar
- 7940c739aafad42be93bddeda83667a658986963
- Cited by
- 1,315
- References
- 203
- Citations by year
- 2026: 148 · 2025: 149 · 2024: 138 · 2023: 124 · 2022: 134 · 2021: 192 · 2020: 203 · 2019: 78 · 2018: 78 · 2017: 48 · 2016: 21
- FWCI
- 5.77
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Illinois Digital Environment for Access to Learning and Scholarship (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Sponsor name not included (R01 MH094241, R01 NR08325, and R56 AI114501)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Risk Perception and Management
- Social Sciences › Communication › Media Influence and Health
- Keywords
- fear appeals, attitude change, behavioral intention, risk communication, perceived susceptibility, perceived severity, message framing
- MeSH terms
- Attitude, Behavior, Fear, Female, Humans, Male, Models, Psychological, Persuasive Communication, Risk Factors, Intention
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-09-28, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-09-28 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
