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Cited by 53Attention Deficit Hyperactivity DisorderChild and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional DevelopmentDevelopmental and Educational Neuropsychology

Temperament, executive control, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder across early development.

Open access
Rabinovitz, Beth B., O'Neill, Sarah, Rajendran, Khushmand, Halperin, Jeffrey M.·2016·Journal of Abnormal Psychology
DOI 10.1037/abn0000093PMC PMC4747052
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Abstract

Research examining factors linking early temperament and later attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is limited by cross-sectional approaches and having the same informant rate both temperament and psychopathology. The authors used multiinformant/multimethod longitudinal data to test the hypothesis that negative emotionality during preschool is positively associated with ADHD symptom severity in middle childhood, but developing executive control mediates this relation. Children (N = 161) with and without ADHD were evaluated 3 times: parent and teacher temperament ratings and NEPSY visual attention at ages 3-4 years; Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-4th edition Working Memory Index and NEPSY Response Set at age 6 years; and ADHD symptoms using the Kiddie-SADS at age 7 years. Parent and teacher ratings of preschoolers' temperament were combined to form an anger/frustration composite. Similarly, an executive functioning composite was derived from age 6 measures. Bootstrapping was used to determine whether age 6 executive functioning mediated the relation between early anger/frustration and later ADHD symptom severity, while controlling for early executive functioning. Preschoolers' anger/frustration was significantly associated with later ADHD symptoms, with this relation partially mediated by age 6 executive functioning. Developing executive control mediates the relation between early anger/frustration and later ADHD symptom severity, suggesting that anger/frustration influences ADHD symptom severity through its impact on developing executive control. Early interventions targeting the harmful influences of negative emotionality or enhancing executive functioning may diminish later ADHD severity.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1037/abn0000093

Cites

50 of 50 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

0 of 43 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    The direct path from the preschool Anger/Frustration composite to age 7 ADHD symptoms had B = 6.64, p < .001.

    “indicated both direct (B = 6.64, p < .001) and indirect (B = .77, 95% CI: .24 – 1.56) effects of preschooler’s Anger/Frustration composite on ADHD symptoms at age 7 years.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The indirect path from the preschool Anger/Frustration composite to age 7 ADHD symptoms via age 6 Executive Functioning had B = .77, 95% CI .24-1.56.

    “indicated both direct (B = 6.64, p < .001) and indirect (B = .77, 95% CI: .24 – 1.56) effects of preschooler’s Anger/Frustration composite on ADHD symptoms at age 7 years.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    All key study variables were significantly associated with ADHD symptom severity.

    “All variables were significantly associated with ADHD symptom severity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The relation between preschool Anger/Frustration and later ADHD symptom severity was partially mediated by age 6 Executive Functioning.

    “with this relation partially mediated by age 6 Executive Functioning”
    • Also stated in: § Executive Functioning as a Mediator of the relation between Anger/Frustration composite and Later ADHD Symptom Severity (see Table 3) · plain
      “The Executive Functioning composite at age 6 years was a significant partial mediator of the relation between preschoolers’ Anger/Frustration composite and their ADHD symptom severity at age 7 years.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Working memory was associated with both parent-rated Anger/Frustration and teacher-rated Negative Emotionality.

    “When examining individual constructs, parent-rated Anger/Frustration and teacher-rated Negative Emotionality were associated with working memory.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 23
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 12

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Inhibitory control/set-shifting was significantly associated with parent-rated Anger/Frustration, but not with teacher-rated Negative Emotionality.

    “Parent-rated Anger/Frustration but not teacher-rated Negative Emotionality was significantly associated with inhibitory control/set-shifting.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    After controlling for preschool executive functioning, the Anger/Frustration composite at ages 3-4 predicted executive functioning at age 6 and ADHD symptom severity at age 7.

    “After controlling for preschoolers’ executive functioning, the Anger/Frustration composite at 3–4 years (X) predicted both Executive Functioning at age 6 years (M) and ADHD symptom severity at age 7 years (Y).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    As children develop, effortful control grows and plays a larger part in regulating bottom-up reactive behaviors.

    “These findings are consistent with literature suggesting that effortful control, although present to a limited extent in early childhood, increases over the course of development (Murray & Kochanska, 2002) and takes on a greater role in modulating bottom-up reactive behaviors (Rothbart, Derryberry, & Posner, 1994).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Murray & Kochanska, 2002

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Rothbart, Derryberry, & Posner, 1994

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Children lost to follow-up had higher parent-rated Anger/Frustration and teacher-rated Negative Emotionality than those included, but did not differ on NEPSY Visual Attention at preschool.

    “For key study variables, no differences were seen on NEPSY Visual Attention performance (p=.08) at preschool, but those lost to follow-up had higher levels of Anger/Frustration according to parents (p=.03) and Negative Emotionality according to teachers (p=.02) than children included in the study.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Outcome assessors administering the K-SADS were blind to temperament ratings and neuropsychological test scores.

    “The K-SADS semi-structured interview was administered by Ph.D.-level clinicians or trained graduate students under the supervision of Ph.D.-level clinicians who were blind to temperament ratings and neuropsychological test scores.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The CBQ Anger/Frustration subscale had a coefficient alpha of .75 in the sample.

    “Within our sample its coefficient alpha was .75.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    ADHD is associated with effortful control and with the anger aspect of negative emotionality.

    “Certain temperament traits, in particular the anger component of negative emotionality (Eisenberg et al., 2005) as well as effortful control, are associated with ADHD (De Pauw & Mervielde, 2011; Foley, McClowry, & Castellanos, 2008; Martel & Nigg, 2006).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Eisenberg et al., 2005

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites De Pauw & Mervielde, 2011

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Martel & Nigg, 2006

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The Anger/Frustration composite had a reliability of .87.

    “A reliability of .87 was obtained for this Anger/Frustration composite variable using the formula suggested by Nunnally & Bernstein (1994)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Medication was withheld on the morning of evaluation to minimize impact on test performance, and ADHD symptom endorsement was based on unmedicated behavior.

    “medication was withheld on the morning of the evaluation to minimize impact on test performance, and endorsement of ADHD symptoms on the K-SADS was made based on the child’s behavior while not medicated as reported by the parent.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Deficits in both effortful control (as a temperament construct) and executive functioning (as measured neuropsychologically) have been linked to ADHD.

    “ADHD has been associated with deficits in both temperamentally-construed effortful control and neuropsychologically-defined executive functioning (Barkley, 1997; Nigg, 2001; Sergeant, Geurts, Huijbregts, Scheres, & Oosterlan, 2003)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Barkley, 1997

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Nigg, 2001

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Sergeant et al., 2003

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The TABC-R Negative Emotionality subscale had a coefficient alpha of .92 in the sample.

    “Coefficient alpha for the Negative Emotionality subscale was .92 in our sample.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    ADHD symptoms appear early in childhood, while prefrontal cortex development continues through adolescence and into early adulthood.

    “However, symptoms of ADHD are present early in childhood, whereas prefrontal cortical development continues throughout childhood, adolescence, and into early adulthood, calling into question the hypothesis that executive dysfunction is a causal mechanism of ADHD (Halperin & Schulz, 2006).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Halperin & Schulz, 2006

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Effortful control appears after reactive traits and keeps developing through childhood and adolescence.

    “Effortful control is also considered under the rubric of temperament, but this regulatory element emerges later in development than reactive traits, and continues developing throughout childhood and into adolescence (Rothbart, Ellis, Rueda, & Posner, 2003).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rothbart, Ellis, Rueda, & Posner, 2003

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Internalizing disorders are predicted by fear, while externalizing disorders, including ADHD, are predicted by anger.

    “However, within this broad construct, two distinct pathways to psychopathology have been observed, with fear predicting internalizing disorders and anger predicting externalizing disorders, including ADHD (Auerbach et al., 2008; Rothbart & Bates, 2006).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Auerbach et al., 2008

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Rothbart & Bates, 2006

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    ADHD involves early and enduring bottom-up subcortical dysfunction, while symptom improvement reflects growth in prefrontal cortical areas and their connections to subcortical structures (top-down control).

    “Our findings are consistent with Halperin and Schultz’ (2006) model of ADHD, which purports that ADHD represents early and enduring (“bottom-up”) subcortical dysfunction, while symptom improvement reflects increases in development of prefrontal cortical areas and connections between these areas and subcortical brain structures (top-down control).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Halperin and Schultz’ (2006)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Temperamental reactivity is inversely linked to later control mechanisms and may affect the development of executive functions such as working memory and inhibitory control.

    “These findings are consistent with data indicating that temperamental reactivity is inversely associated with subsequent control mechanisms (Rothbart & Sheese, 2007) and may impact development of executive functions, such as working memory and inhibitory control (Wolfe & Bell, 2007).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Rothbart & Sheese, 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Wolfe & Bell, 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    According to Halperin and Schulz, ADHD stems from early persistent subcortical dysfunction, and symptom improvement reflects later development of executive control.

    “Halperin and Schulz (2006) proposed that ADHD is due to early and enduring subcortical dysfunction, while symptom improvement reflects later-emerging development in executive control.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Halperin and Schulz (2006)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Early subcortical dysfunction likely disrupts optimal cortical development and/or cortical-subcortical network development.

    “Moreover, our findings suggest that early subcortical dysfunction is likely to impinge upon optimal cortical development and/or development of cortical- subcortical networks.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The true mediation effect may be larger than the one observed in this study.

    “Yet, we observed mediation even though executive control was assessed using independent laboratory measures, which suggests perhaps the real mediation effect may be larger than found in this study.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    High negative emotionality and low executive control are risk factors for ADHD.

    “These findings are consistent with previous research and suggest that both high levels of negative emotionality and low levels of executive control represent risk factors for ADHD”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites De Pauw & Merviedle, 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Rapport et al., 2008

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    A child's tendency toward negative emotions might hinder the development of top-down control.

    “Given the inverse relations between these two constructs, it has been suggested that temperamental tendencies toward negative emotions may negatively impact the development of top-down control (Calkins & Degnan, 2006).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Calkins & Degnan, 2006

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Negative emotionality is an early risk factor for underdeveloped executive functioning and possibly later ADHD.

    “our findings also suggest that negative emotionality represents an early risk factor for underdevelopment of executive functioning and, perhaps in turn, ADHD”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Parent report was used for preschoolers' anger/frustration and age 7 ADHD symptom severity, which may have inflated correlations through method bias.

    “Preschoolers’ anger/frustration and children’s ADHD symptom severity at age 7 were measured largely by parent report, potentially inflating correlations because of method bias.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Initial recruitment was not population-based; children were recruited into distinct hyperactive/inattentive and typically developing groups.

    “initial recruitment for this study was not population-based; rather, we recruited into children into distinct hyperactive/inattentive and typically-developing groups.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The results improve understanding of how temperament relates to executive functions and how temperament acts as a risk factor for persistent ADHD symptom severity.

    “Despite these limitations, our results add to the understanding of the relations between temperament and executive functions and the process by which temperament acts as a risk factor for the persistence of ADHD symptom severity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The results are limited by a restricted age range and need replication in older samples.

    “Therefore, despite the longitudinal design, our results are limited by the somewhat restricted age range, and should be replicated in older samples.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Systematic differences between dropouts and non-dropouts are commonly found in longitudinal studies.

    “systematic differences between those who do and do not drop out of longitudinal studies are commonly observed (e.g., Campbell, Ewing, Breaux, & Szumowski, 1986).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Campbell, Ewing, Breaux, & Szumowski, 1986

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Anger/frustration rating scale items generally do not overlap with ADHD symptoms, and anger/frustration ratings were collected at different time points than ADHD symptom ratings.

    “Although items on these scales generally do not overlap with ADHD symptoms, and ratings of anger/frustration were obtained at different time-points than those of ADHD symptoms”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The sample represented the full distribution of ADHD symptoms and severity.

    “Yet, our sample represented the full distribution of ADHD symptoms and severity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Selective attrition likely lowers rates of psychiatric diagnoses at outcome but is unlikely to affect the relations among modeled variables.

    “Recent work by Wolke and colleagues (2009) suggests that such selective attrition likely results in lower rates of psychiatric diagnoses at outcome, but is unlikely to affect the relations observed among modeled variables.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wolke and colleagues (2009)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationown data

    The results improve understanding of the roles of bottom-up and top-down systems in the trajectory of ADHD symptom severity.

    “In addition, these results add to our understanding of the contributions of “bottom-up” and “top-down” systems in the trajectory of ADHD symptom severity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Major gains in executive functions/effortful control occur only from preschool onward, and these gains influence emotional expression.

    “It is only from preschool onwards that major gains in executive functions/effortful control are seen, which in turn, influence emotional expression (Diamond, 2006; Rothbart et al., 2011).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Diamond, 2006

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Rothbart et al., 2011

      Not checked in the free run.

32 of 32

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Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • ConsistentF(3, 148) = 24.14reported p < .0001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(3, 148) = 24.14, p < .0001”

  • ConsistentF(3, 146) = 11.53reported p < .0001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(3, 146) = 11.53, p < .0001”

  • ConsistentF(3, 138) = 14.42reported p < .0001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(3, 138) = 14.42, p < .0001”

  • ConsistentF(3, 141) = 13.83reported p < .0001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(3, 141) = 13.83, p < .0001”

4 of 4

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Self-check results appear here once an independent check has confirmed them.

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 9

  1. Calkins SD Degnan KA Temperament in early development Comprehensive handbook of personality and psychopathology 2006 3 Hoboken, NJ, US John Wiley & Sons Inc. 64 84
  2. Diamond A Bialystok E Craik FIM The early development of executive functions Lifespan cognition: Mechanisms of change 2006 New York, NY Oxford University Press 70 95
  3. DuPaul GJ Power TJ Anastopoulos AD Reid R ADHD Rating Scale-IV: Checklists, norms, and clinical interpretations 1998 New York Guilford Press
  4. Foley M McClowry SG Castellanos FX The relationship between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and child temperament Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 2008 29 157 169
  5. Nunnally JC Bernstein IH Psychometric theory 1994 3rd ed New York McGraw-Hill
  6. Rothbart MK Kohnstamm G Bates J Rothbart MK Temperament and development Temperament in childhood 1989 Chichester, ENG Wiley 187 248
  7. Rothbart MK Bates JE Eisenberg N Damon W Richard LM Temperament Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Social, emotional and personality development 2006 6th ed Hoboken, NJ John Wiley & Sons Inc. 99 166
  8. Rothbart MK Sheese B Gross J Temperament and emotion regulation Handbook of emotion regulation 2007 New York, NY US Guilford Press 331 350
  9. Thomas A Chess S Temperament and Development 1977 Brunnel/Mazel Oxford

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Related

Authors
Rabinovitz, B. B., O'Neill, S., Rajendran, K., & Halperin, J. M.
Affiliations
  • NewYork–Presbyterian Hospital (US)
  • Borough of Manhattan Community College (US)
  • Queens College, CUNY (US)
ORCID
Halperin, Jeffrey M.
Venue
Journal of Abnormal Psychology
Publisher
American Psychological Association (APA)
Published
2016-02
Volume
125
Issue
2
Pages
196-206
ISSN
  • 0021-843X (ISSN-L)
  • 1939-1846
DOI
10.1037/abn0000093
PMC
PMC4747052
OpenAlex
W2346817488
Cited by
53
References
50
Citations by year
2026: 8 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 2 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 2 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 3
FWCI
5.33
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Journal of Abnormal Psychology (publishedVersion, other-oa)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders
National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH068286)
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
Keywords
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, temperament, negative affectivity, anger, frustration, executive function, mediation, preschool children, middle childhood, ADHD symptom severity, visual attention, working memory, early intervention
MeSH terms
Anger, Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity, Child Development, Child, Preschool, Female, Frustration, Humans, Male, Memory, Short-Term, Risk Factors, Temperament, Executive Function

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