Neurocognitive and behavioral predictors of social problems in ADHD: A Bayesian framework.

“…& Engle, 2010): All tasks require multiple executive and nonexecutive neurocognitive abilities for successful performance, and conclusions regarding effect specificity are limited when these correlated but distinct abilities are not measured and simultaneously controlled (Miyake & Friedman, 2012).”

“The specificity of these effects may be limited, however, because the study failed to consider working memory’s interrelations with additional neurocognitive functions such as inhibitory control and processing speed, as well as potential differential effects of phonological (verbal) versus visuospatial (nonverbal) wor…”

“…of information held in short-term memory (STM; Baddeley, 2007), and includes interrelated functions of the midlateral prefrontal cortex and interconnected networks that involve supervisory attentional control, updating, processing, and reordering (Nee et al., 2012; Wager & Smith, 2003).”

“Statistically, we controlled for task impurity by computing Bartlett weighted averages based on the intercorrelations among task performance scores (DiStefano et al., 2009).”

“In addition, most studies to date have used mediation-based approaches that have been criticized for producing unreliable estimates of key pathways (Maxwell et al., 2007, 2011), and all have relied on traditional null hypothesis significance testing that disallows strong conclusions regarding the…”

“, 2007) and are supported by networks involving bilateral frontal, right superior temporal and left inferior occipital gyri, right thalamic, and midbrain structures (Cortese et al., 2012).”

“, 2007), encode and mentally process verbally-presented information in real time, evaluate this information in the context of previous experiences and the immediate context (Baddeley, 2007), and simultaneously organize and plan a socially appropriate response while minimizing interference from both task-unrelated thou…”

“This residual IQ score represents intellectual functions that are important for IQ test performance but unrelated to executive functioning, and was computed to improve construct specificity because IQ performance depends heavily on more specific executive functions such as working memory, even for IQ subtests not labe…”

“The benefits of Bayesian methods over null hypothesis significance testing (NHST) are well documented (Rouder & Morey, 2012; van de Schoot et al., 2014; Wagenmakers et al., 2016).”

“This finding may explain why emerging interventions that reinforce in vivo social skills performance (Mikami et al., 2010) appear to be more effective than traditional approaches that explicitly teach social skills (Evans et al., 2014).”

“…(ADHD; 52%–82%; de Boo & Prins, 2007; Huang-Pollock, Mikami, Pfiffner, & McBurnett, 2009), and include a broad range of difficulties that include difficulties making and maintaining friendships, peer rejection and neglect, and increased negative peer and caregiver interactions (Hoza et al., 2005).”

“SSD at each of the four blocks is the most direct measure of inhibition in stop-signal tasks that use dynamic stop-signal delays, because SSD changes systematically according to inhibitory success or failure (Alderson et al., 2007; Lijffijt et al., 2005).”

“…of information held in short-term memory (STM; Baddeley, 2007), and includes interrelated functions of the midlateral prefrontal cortex and interconnected networks that involve supervisory attentional control, updating, processing, and reordering (Nee et al., 2012; Wager & Smith, 2003).”

“In each step, the best fitting model was selected (criteria: combination of predictors with highest BF10 3), and each additional predictor was tested relative to this best-fitting model (Rouder & Morey, 2012).”

“…set of interrelated cognitive processes that underlie the ability to withhold (action restraint) or stop (action cancellation) an ongoing response (Alderson et al., 2007) and are supported by networks involving bilateral frontal, right superior temporal and left inferior occipital gyri, right…”

“05), rather than the strong support that is desirable for conclusively ruling out an effect (Wagenmakers et al., 2016).”

“Interestingly, previous evidence implicating inhibitory control (Bunford et al., 2015) and processing speed (Kofler et al., 2016) in ADHD-related social problems is based in part on data from the same stop-signal task used in the current study.”

“Following Rapport et al. (2009), a residual IQ score was derived by covarying the neurocognitive variables described above out of Short-Form IQ (SFIQ; R2 .18, p .0005).”

“Our findings support conceptualizations of social problems as in situ performance deficits that are secondary to working memory “glitches” (Abikoff et al., 2013).”

“, 2009), attention (Kofler et al., 2010), impulsivity (Raiker et al.”

“Conceptually, this process isolates “common and perfectly reliable variance” (Swanson & Kim, 2007, p. 158) associated with each neurocognitive construct by removing task-specific demands associated with nonexecutive processes, time-on-task effects via inclusion of four blocks per task, and…”

“…broadly consistent with characterizations of social problems as secondary to the “intrusive . . . and generally aversive” nature of ADHD symptoms (Landau & Moore, 1991, p. 235), as well as evidence that the direct link between ADHD symptoms and social problems is conveyed specifically by their…”

“Alternatively, these findings may be interpreted in light of evidence that teachers may be better reporters of functional impairments than parents (Langberg et al., 2013).”

“…and hyperactivity) and neurocognitive dysfunction in the acquisition and performance of developmentally expected social skills (Frey et al., 2011; Gresham et al., 2010), as well as the DSM–5 clinical model conceptualization of social problems as one of three primary functional impairments in…”

“Reliability and validity evidence includes internal consistency ( .82–.97), 1- to 3-week test–retest reliability (.76–.90; Sarver et al., 2015), and expected magnitude relations with criterion working memory complex span (r .69) and updating tasks (r .61; Wells et al., 2015).”

“Our results are consistent also with clinical (Hilton et al., 2017) and developmental studies (Kane et al., 2007; McQuade et al., 2013; Phillips et al., 2007), and indicate that working memory dysfunction may interfere with the acquisition of prosocial skills, in-the-moment performance of…”

“All ADHD subtypes/presentations were eligible given the instability of ADHD subtypes (Valo & Tannock, 2010).”

“This finding may explain why emerging interventions that reinforce in vivo social skills performance (Mikami et al., 2010) appear to be more effective than traditional approaches that explicitly teach social skills (Evans et al., 2014).”

“Psychometric evidence includes high internal consistency, 3-week test–retest reliability (both .72), and convergent validity with other inhibition tests (Soreni et al., 2009).”

“Rinsky and Hinshaw (2011) reported a “marginal” predictive association between a digit span test and social functioning.”

“…account for this conceptualization, although divergence in the field is indicated by the equal number of these studies that have modeled executive functioning as an outcome of ADHD symptoms (Huang-Pollock et al., 2009; Tseng & Gau, 2013) and vice versa (Bunford et al., 2015; Kofler et al., 2011).”

“Interestingly, previous evidence implicating inhibitory control (Bunford et al., 2015) and processing speed (Kofler et al., 2016) in ADHD-related social problems is based in part on data from the same stop-signal task used in the current study.”

“These findings are consistent with the social behavioral analysis framework (Gresham et al., 2010), as well as studies of global social problems in ADHD (Bunford et al., 2015; Kofler et al., 2010, 2016; Tseng & Gau, 2013).”

“Interestingly, previous evidence implicating inhibitory control (Bunford et al., 2015) and processing speed (Kofler et al., 2016) in ADHD-related social problems is based in part on data from the same stop-signal task used in the current study.”

“All children were administered the WASI-II (Wechsler, 2011; n 32), WISC-IV Short Form (Wechsler, 2003; n 2), or WISC-V Short Form (Sattler et al., 2016; Wechsler, 2014; n 78) to obtain an overall estimate of intellectual functioning.”

“…and act upon external information (Shanahan et al., 2006), is associated with anterior cingulate (Konrad et al., 2006) and fronto-parietal cortical regions (Cao et al., 2008) among others, and is often considered an etiologically important mechanism in ADHD (Karalunas & Huang-Pollock, 2013).”

“The discrepancy between parent and teacher models suggests that these informants may have different behavioral expectations for prosocial peer relationships (Lane et al., 2004), and/or view children’s social behaviors in different contexts (e.g., large groups vs. playdates).”

“These findings were consistent with previous reports (Andrade et al., 2009; Humphrey et al., 2007), and extend this literature by demonstrating that different interfering behaviors may be implicated in different settings and/or for the acquisition versus performance of social skills.”

“These findings were consistent with previous reports (Andrade et al., 2009; Humphrey et al., 2007), and extend this literature by demonstrating that different interfering behaviors may be implicated in different settings and/or for the acquisition versus performance of social skills.”

“The current study examines neurocognitive deficits and core ADHD behavioral symptoms that may interfere with the acquisition and/or performance of developmentally-appropriate social behavior (Humphreys et al., 2016; Rapport et al., 2009).”

“, 2012), and ADHD-related functional impairments (Friedman et al., 2016; Kofler et al., 2011, 2016).”

“That is, in vivo behavioral prompts and scaffolding reminders/ redirection may inadvertently reduce the dual-processing demands involved in dynamically decoding verbal and nonverbal social cues while concurrently processing this information and organizing a prosocial response (Phillips et al., 2007).”

“…empirically identified and developmentally expected social behaviors (Frey et al., 2011; Gresham et al., 2010), which differentiates it from approaches that focus on declarative social knowledge (Kofler et al., 2015; Leonard et al., 2011) or comprehension (Sibley, Evans, & Serpell, 2010).”

“…computerized working memory tasks correctly classify children with versus without ADHD at similar rates as parent and teacher ADHD rating scales (Tarle et al., 2017), and predict hyperactivity (Rapport et al., 2009), attention (Kofler et al., 2010), impulsivity (Raiker et al., 2012), and…”

“Our results are consistent also with clinical (Hilton et al., 2017) and developmental studies (Kane et al.”

“Neurocognitive impairments are hypothesized as a core part of ADHD symptomatology (Castellanos and Tannock, 2002; van Lieshout et al., 2017; Kofler et al., 2018).”

“A recent study showed that EF deficits were as predictive of social dysfunction as parent- and teacher-rated ADHD symptoms (Kofler et al., 2018).”

“WM has been shown to be significantly correlated with inattention and disorganization in those with ADHD [31,32].”

“…skill-sets (e.g. social skills training) in children with ADHD may be due to the fact that these children possess the ageexpected skills but instead have difficulty implementing these skills consistently due to working memory and/or attention difficulties (Aduen et al., 2018; Kofler et al., 2018).”

“Greater teacher-reported social skills have been associated with lower inattentiveness and better working memory in a sample of youth with ADHD (Kofler et al., 2018), and better quality teacher–child relationships in a sample of youth with ASD (Losh et al., 2019).”

“These findings are consistent with recent findings of working memory effects on teacher-rated social functioning (Kofler, Rapport, et al., 2011; Kofler et al., 2018).”

“…is unaffected by concurrent working memory demands would potentially indicate that face processing and working memory rely on functionally distinct neurocognitive systems and lend support to the hypothesis that working memory’s relation with emotion recognition is non-causal (Kofler et al., 2018).”

“…response inhibition (the ability to supress inappropriate actions) and emotion recognition, and social difficulties in ADHD (Bunford et al., 2015; Kofler et al., 2018; Staff et al., 2021; Tseng & Gau, 2013; Zendarski et al., 2021), the mechanism by which these cognitive and social cognitive…”

“The tasks were selected to provide a broad sampling of children’s gross motor movement across both high and low cognitive demands and given precedence for using actigraphy to measure children’s activity level during these tasks (e.g., Alderson et al., 2012; Kofler et al., 2018; Rapport et al., 2009).”

“…to common correlates of ADHD—such as deficits in executive skills, academic proficiency, and social-emotional function (Coghill et al., 2014; Kofler et al., 2018, Kortekaas-Rijlaarsdam et al., 2019)—and approximately 20% to 35% of individuals with ADHD are medication non-responders…”

“However, several studies have shown a weak link between inhibitory control and social problems in ADHD 31–35 .”

“It is hypothesized that neurocognitive deficiencies are a fundamental and widespread part of ADHD symptoms, including the domains of sustained attention or vigilance, working memory, and self-regulation, and executive function (EF) (Kofler et al., 2018).”

“…executive function heterogeneity (Kofler et al. 2019), working memory heterogeneity (Fosco et al. 2020), and as predictors of social functioning (Kofler et al. 2018), sluggish cognitive tempo (Kofler et al. 2019), and set shifting deficits (Irwin et al. 2019) in children with ADHD. sadness…”

“These social impairments among children with ADHD have been attributed to their impulsivity and short attention span, emotional regulation problems, executive function deficits, and pragmatic language skills deficits (Bunford et al., 2015; Kofler et al., 2018; Staikova et al., 2013; Tseng & Gau, 2013).”

“In another study on a similar sample of participants (Kofler et al., 2018), predictors of social difficulties noticed by parents and teachers were deficits in working memory and attention, as well as hyperactivity and impulsivity.”

“Working memory, or the capacity to hold information online while manipulating it [19,20], shows the largest differences (with a moderate effect size) between children with ADHD and TD children [19,21,22].”

“ADHD often presents with deficits across multiple cognitive domains (Bloemsma et al., 2013; Claesdotter et al., 2018; Kofler et al., 2013, 2018, 2019; Lambek et al., 2011).”

“…networks associated with emotion recognition (Dickstein & Castellanos, 2011) and has been shown to predict facial affect recognition abilities (Wells et al., 2019) and social skills deficits in children with (Bunford et al., 2014; Kofler et al., 2011, 2018) and without ADHD (Phillips et al., 2008).”

“Moreover, deficits in VSWM can affect children’s social interaction processes and even lead to social dysfunction [54], negatively impacting children’s mental health [55–59].”

“Interestingly, a reduction of OT serum levels and the presence of variants in its receptor accompany these disorders [17, 23, 24 ].”

“Similar associations between reduced EF and lower social functioning in children and adolescents with ADHD have been reported from cross-sectional studies (e.g. Clark et al., 2002; Kofler et al., 2018).”

“However, often there is a ‘shift’ in this paradigm and recent evidences suggest average IQ in ADHD probands in spite of functional deficit (Kofler et al., 2018).”

“ADHD is associated with poorer social skills [27], which can exacerbate depression and reduce social support and interaction [28], contributing to a potential cycle, in that ADHD combined with depression can contribute to peer isolation [29].”

“Poorer inhibitory con-trol, on the other hand, has not been as consistently associated with social problems [see 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 21].”

“Importantly, neurocognitive impairments are hypothesized to be a core component of ADHD symptomatology, particularly affecting domains of sustained attention or vigilance, self-regulation, and executive function (EF) [10,11].”

“WM deficits are detrimental to academic performance, social skills, and relationships, and may also contribute to the inattention and hyperactivity typical of ADHD [4].”

“ADHD symptoms, such as inattention and impulsivity, are known contributors to social impairments in non-NF1 samples (Humphreys et al., 2016; Kofler et al., 2011, 2018).”

“Further, deficiency in VSWM can disrupt children ’ s social interactions and potentially result in social dysfunction (9), which may negatively affect mental health (10).”

“Since verbal communication skills and working memory (Kofler et al., 2018) are particularly taxed in this task and may be impaired in ADHD, we investigated their contribution to performance.”

“26,27 Additionally, when interventions targeting executive dysfunction were implemented, improvements in social skills have been shown 28 .”

“…de que las deficiencias neurocognitivas son un aspecto fundamental y generalizado de los síntomas del TDAH, incluidos los dominios de atención o vigilancia sostenida, memoria de trabajo y autorregulación, y función ejecutiva (FE) (Kofler et al., 2018; Luo et al., 2019; Polanczyk et al., 2015).”

“…behaviors such as organizational skills (Kofler et al., 2018a), academic achievement and success (Singh et al., 2022), learning behaviors such as task engagement and persistence (Demaray & Jenkins, 2011), social skills (Kofler et al., 2011, 2018b), and emotion regulation (Groves et al., 2022).”

“…programmes need to be adjusted to focusing more on social support or scaffolding in real life social situations (“in vivo”) (Aduen et al., 2018; Kofler et al., 2018; Mikami et al., 2017), for example by coaching teachers and parents to support the children in play activities, like facilitating…”

“Additionally, the heightened emotional reactivity and dysregulation, commonly associated with ADHD as well (Kofler et al., 2018; Pievsky & McGrath, 2018), could contribute to the observed increase in negative behaviors and emotions in children.”

“Further, it is possible that social problems in ADHD are more reflective of inconsistent per - formance rather than a lack of knowledge/skills (Aduen et al., 2018), and this may implicate working memory and core ADHD symptoms in the performance of socially skilled behavior (Kofler et al., 2018).”

“A wealth of research indicates that distinct WM subcomponents possess distinct functionalities and characteristics (Hartley et al., 2016; Kofler et al., 2018; Linck et al., 2014).”

“Evidence from ADHD literature implicates working memory, impulsivity, and inconsistent focus as contributors to social difficulties (Kofler et al., 2011; Kofler et al., 2018).”

“Additional work is needed to identify the mechanisms and processes underlying performance inconsistency in ADHD and to determine whether different factors may account for social performance relative to other forms of performance inconsistency in children with ADHD (e.g., Kofler et al., 2018).”