An Examination of Relations Among Working Memory, ADHD Symptoms, and Emotion Regulation
Open accessAbstract
Emotion regulation difficulties are present in many, if not most, children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and confer risk for a host of adverse outcomes. Little is known, however, regarding the neurocognitive and behavioral mechanisms that underlie these difficulties. A well-characterized, clinically evaluated sample of 145 children ages 8-13 years (M = 10.33, SD = 1.47; 55 girls; 69% White/non-Hispanic) were administered multiple, counterbalanced working memory tests and assessed for emotion dysregulation and ADHD symptoms via multiple-informant reports. Bias-corrected, bootstrapped conditional effects modeling indicated that underdeveloped working memory exerted significant direct effects on emotion regulation in all tested models as well as indirect effects on emotion regulation via parent-reported hyperactive/impulsive symptoms (95% CIs excluded zero). Interestingly, hyperactive/impulsive symptoms also predicted emotion dysregulation when controlling for the influence of working memory. Inattention failed to predict emotion regulation difficulties in all tested models (all 95% CIs included zero). This pattern of results replicated across parent and teacher models and were robust to control for mono-informant bias, age, and gender. These findings suggest that emotion dysregulation in ADHD reflects, in part, both a direct outcome of underdeveloped working memory and an affective outcome of hyperactive and/or impulsive symptomatology, both attributable to and independent of the role of underlying working memory deficits.
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The modest EF test/rating association is unlikely to be due to EF ratings covering a wider range of executive functions than the tests, given component scores and evidence that the tests capture variance related to a wide range of behaviors.
“However, this conclusion seems unlikely given our use of component scores to capture domain-general executive functioning abilities, combined with replicated evidence that these tests are capturing reliable variance associated with the wide range of behaviors that the EF ratings are intended to capture”
From Executive functioning rating scales: Ecologically valid or construct invalid? (2020) · cites this paper as Groves et al., 2020
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The Role of ADHD and Negative Emotional Lability in Predicting Changes in Parenting Daily Hassles
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Investigating the relationship between working memory and emotion regulation in mothers
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Cited by
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Emotional Dysregulation in Children and Adolescents With Psychiatric Disorders. A Narrative Review
Paulus, F. W., Ohmann, S., Möhler, E., Plener, P. L., & Popow, C. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.628252 · Cited by 335 · see citing works
Evidence of emotion dysregulation as a core symptom of adult ADHD: A systematic review
Soler-Gutiérrez, A.-M., Pérez-González, J.-C., & Mayas, J. (2023) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0280131 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Executive functioning rating scales: Ecologically valid or construct invalid?
Soto, E. F., Kofler, M. J., Singh, L. J., Wells, E. L., Irwin, L. N., Groves, N. B., & Miller, C. E. (2020) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000681 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Self-citationExecutive Functioning and Emotion Regulation in Children with and without ADHD
Groves, N. B., Wells, E. L., Soto, E. F., Marsh, C. L., Jaisle, E. M., Harvey, T. K., & Kofler, M. J. (2022) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-021-00883-0 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
“1 3 suggests cross-sectional (Groves et al., 2020; Sjowall et al., 2013) and potentially functional relations between specific executive functions and emotion regulation (Tarle et al.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSelf-citationEmotion Regulation as a Transdiagnostic Feature in Children with Neurodevelopmental Disorders
England-Mason, G. (2020) · Current Developmental Disorders Reports · doi:10.1007/s40474-020-00200-2 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Linking ADHD and ASD Symptomatology with Social Impairment: The Role of Emotion Dysregulation
Jaisle, E. M., Groves, N. B., Black, K. E., & Kofler, M. J. (2022) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-022-00982-6 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Self-citationHalse, M., Steinsbekk, S., Bjørklund, O., Hammar, Å., & Wichstrøm, L. (2024) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.14096 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Neural basis of working memory in ADHD: Load versus complexity
Mukherjee, P., Hartanto, T. A., Iosif, A., Dixon, J. F., Hinshaw, S. P., Pakyürek, M., van den Bos, W., Guyer, A. E., McClure, S. M., Schweitzer, J. B., et al. (2021) · NeuroImage Clinical · doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2021.102662 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“Undeniably, WM-related impairments can have a profound influence on a variety of functions, affecting areas of life, such as academic achievement (Simone et al., 2018; Fried et al., 2019), emotion processing (Groves et al., 2020), social relationships (Kofler et al., 2011).”
Robison, M. K., Ralph, K. J., Gondoli, D. M., Torres, A. S., Campbell, S., Brewer, G. A., & Gibson, B. S. (2023) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-023-01096-2 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“, 2014; Kormos and Sáfár, 2008), and emotion regulation (Groves et al., 2020; Schmeichel and Demaree, 2010; Schmeichel et al., 2008).”
BackgroundBlader, J. C., Garrett, A. S., & Pliszka, S. R. (2025) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.14126 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Grossman, A., & Avital, A. (2023) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2023.1118937 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“, 2001), impulsivity and hyperactivity can predict the severity of emotional dysregulation in ADHD (Groves et al., 2020), and heightened sensory sensitivity strengthens the relationship between hyperactive/impulsive symptoms and emotional dysregulation in children with three or more clinically impairing ADHD symptoms…”
BackgroundResultAdamczyk, A. K., Wyczesany, M., & van Peer, J. M. (2022) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2022.108327 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Zainal, N. H., & Newman, M. G. (2022) · European Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/j.eurpsy.2022.19 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Lai, K.-Y., Li, C., Tsai, C., Chou, W., Huang, W., You, H., Lee, S.-Y., & Wang, L. (2024) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2024.107169 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Working memory training for adult glioma patients: a proof-of-concept study
Braun, S. E., Aslanzadeh, F. J., Lanoye, A. M., Fountain‐Zaragoza, S., Malkin, M. G., & Loughan, A. R. (2021) · Journal of Neuro-Oncology · doi:10.1007/s11060-021-03839-y · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Groves, N. B., Chan, E. S. M., Marsh, C. L., Gaye, F., Jaisle, E. M., & Kofler, M. J. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1034722 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Indeed, working memory predicts emotion regulation in samples of children with ADHD with and without common comorbidities (7, 9).”
BackgroundSelf-citationPanah, M. T., Taremian, F., Dolatshahi, B., Seddigh, S. H., Raeisian, F. S., & Panah, E. (2025) · Applied Neuropsychology: Adult · doi:10.1080/23279095.2022.2158441 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“However, recent experimental and correlational findings in the neurocognitive literature on ADHD indicate that WM has a critical and primary mechanism underlying ADHD symptom (Alderson et al., 2010; Groves et al., 2020; Kofler et al., 2008; Lee, 2005; Rapport et al., 2001; Tarle, 2015).”
Pozo-Rodríguez, M., Cruz, S., Zubizarreta, S. C.-P., Carracedo, Á., Tubío-Fungueiriño, M., & Fernández‐Prieto, M. (2026) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2026.106570 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Eichorn, N., Hall, J., & Marton, K. (2023) · Journal of Fluency Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jfludis.2023.105993 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Cruz, S., Sousa, M., & Mateus, V. (2024) · IntechOpen eBooks · doi:10.5772/intechopen.1004233 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Memoria de trabajo y flexibilidad cognitiva en niños típicos y con diagnóstico de TDAH.
Gatica-Ferrero, S. A. (2020) · Avances en Psicología Latinoamericana · doi:10.12804/revistas.urosario.edu.co/apl/a.7743 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
The experience of effort in ADHD: a scoping review
Wagner, D., Mason, S. G., & Eastwood, J. D. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1349440 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
The role of physical activity in the association between ADHD and emotional dysregulation
Ontiveros, N., Wiklund, C. A., Ohlis, A., & Ekblom, Ö. B. (2025) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2025.01.127 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“In contrast, among children and adolescents, only hyperactivity predicted ED (Groves et al., 2020), and there was no difference between ADHD subtypes (Bunford et al., 2018).”
Latent structure of working memory and emotion regulation in pediatric ADHD
Leib, S. I., Miller, S. A., & Chin, E. (2022) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2022.2107626 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Numerous studies suggest working memory is a key predictor of one’s ability to successfully regulate emotions (Groves et al., 2020).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe effect of mindfulness and stereotype threat in mental rotation: a pupillometry study
Bauer, R., Jost, L., & Jansen, P. (2021) · Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/20445911.2021.1967366 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Last, mindfulness, emotion regulation, working memory, and stereotype threat could be linked together, as emotion regulation can influence working memory and vice versa (see, Barkus, 2020; Groves et al., 2020).”
BackgroundYOGA FOR EMOTIONAL CONTROL IN CHILDREN WITH ADHD
Wang, S. (2023) · Revista Brasileira de Medicina do Esporte · doi:10.1590/1517-8692202329012022_0391 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Battistutta, L., Schiltz, C., & Steffgen, G. (2021) · Advances in Neurodevelopmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s41252-021-00212-y · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“The results of the present study allow to combine past seminal findings regarding the relations between EF, ADHD symptoms, and ER (Groves et al., 2020); EF, ER, and depression symptoms (Wante et al.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialA controlled study of emotional dysfunction in adult women with ADHD
Slobodin, O., Sinay, M. H., & Zohar, A. H. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0337454 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Vocal emotion recognition in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analysis
Sells, R. C., Liversedge, S. P., & Chronaki, G. (2023) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2023.2258590 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Support for this view comes from research linking cognitive de fi cits in individuals with ADHD directly with emotion regulation di ffi cul-ties (Fantozzi et al., 2021; Groves et al., 2020; Sjowall et al., 2013).”
BackgroundResultGårdvik, K. S., Rygg, M., Torgersen, T., Wallander, J. L., Lydersen, S., & Indredavik, M. S. (2021) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-021-03417-6 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“The different treatment methods could furthermore depend on disorder specific features, for example verbal deficits and problems with emotion processing often present with ADHD [60, 61].”
BackgroundKaiser, A., Reneman, L., Lucassen, P. J., Vries, T. J. D., Schrantee, A., & Kaag, A. M. (2021) · Brain Imaging and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11682-021-00532-6 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Exploring Co-Regulation-Related Factors in the Mothers of ADHD Children—Proof of Concept Study
Yaacoby-Vakrat, R., Pade, M., & Bar‐Shalita, T. (2023) · Children · doi:10.3390/children10081286 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“However, compromised parental EFs have been linked to elevated anxiety, impacting the parent–child relationship [30,34,42,43], exacerbating the severity of the child’s ADHD symptoms, and leading to insufficient parental skills and practices [44].”
BackgroundAlacha, H. F., Rosen, P. J., & Bufferd, S. J. (2024) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-024-02403-z · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Given evidence that emotion dysregulation is associated with ADHD symptoms [9, 27, 28, 36, 37] and that emotion dysregulation in adolescence predicts increased ADHD symptom severity in young adulthood [7], it is suspected that emotion dysregulation would also influence ADHD symptom severity in…”
Pace, U., D’Urso, G., Buzzai, C., Passanisi, A., & Zappulla, C. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-022-03706-7 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Ojha, A., Jones, N. P., Henry, T. R., Versace, A., Gnagy, E. M., Joseph, H. M., Molina, B. S. G., & Ladouceur, C. D. (2024) · Biological Psychiatry Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2024.02.003 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Recent evidence has suggested a complex dynamic between cognitive and affective processes in ADHD, with some suggesting that de fi cits in working memory and attentional control may contribute directly and indirectly to symptoms characterized by emotion dysregulation (50,51).”
Parental attachment and emotion regulation in children: the mediating role of working memory
Soydan, S., Acar, A., & Mutlu, K. (2024) · European Early Childhood Education Research Journal · doi:10.1080/1350293x.2024.2407110 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Low working memory performance is known to negatively impact children’s emotion regulation skills (Groves et al. 2020; Groves et al. 2021; Roberts et al. 2017).”
Karaçul, F. E., & Arslan, G. (2025) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/10870547251370427 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Individuals with difficulties in ER are more likely to use maladaptive strategies which would worsen ADHD symptoms (Groves et al., 2020).”
Zhang, W., Cao, X., Wu, Z., Liu, J., Li, Y., Zhang, L., Wang, Y., Jackson, T., Xiang, Y., & Yang, B. (2026) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2026.2638879 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Do Childhood Emotional Lability and ADHD Symptoms Have Shared Neuropsychological Roots?
Liefferinge, D. V., Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S., Danckaerts, M., Broeck, N. V., & der Oord, S. V. (2021) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-020-09859-8 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Several studies found response inhibition and working memory to be significantly related to EL in children and adults with ADHD (Banaschewski et al. 2012; Gisbert et al. 2019; Groves et al. 2020; Jensen et al. 2018; Sjöwall et al. 2013).”
BackgroundNejati, V., Akram, J., Borhani, K., & Fathabadi, J. (2024) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/87565641.2024.2425925 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Based on the findings of the present study, emotional dysregulation in children with ADHD is rooted in poor EF systems, such as inhibitory control (De Pauw & Mervielde, 2010), working memory (Groves et al., 2020), and attentional control (De Pauw & Mervielde, 2010).”
Camia, M., Ciaramidaro, A., Benassi, E., Giovagnoli, S., Angelini, D., Rubichi, S., & Scorza, M. (2025) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare13101211 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Moreover, measures based on questionnaires are limited in their ability to disentangle the mechanisms underlying emotion regulation, such as executive functions [77].”
The Effectiveness of Stimulant Medication at Improving Executive Functioning in Adults with ADHD
Weyandt, L. L., Sweeney, C., & Thompson, L. (2020) · The ADHD Report · doi:10.1521/adhd.2020.28.7.1 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
A Review of Executive Function Deficits in Adults with ADHD
严, 娅. (2023) · Advances in Psychology · doi:10.12677/ap.2023.1311652 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Soares, L. K., Vaz, N. S., Maia, G. A., & Netto, A. M. D. L. (2024) · VITTALLE - Revista de Ciências da Saúde · doi:10.14295/vittalle.v36i1.14902 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Estudos mencionam essas ponderações quando a experiência vivida pelos pais de crianças que apresentam com maior frequência e intensidade, os sintomas de um desenvolvimento típico do TDAH, incluindo problemas com reatividade emocional, regulação e compreensão das atividade diárias (44).”
BackgroundBelal, M., Moussa, S. S., Omnia, R. A., & Fakher, W. (2025) · Middle East Current Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s43045-025-00540-y · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“These findings reinforce prior research showing that EF deficits are central to ADHD-related functional impairments in academic, social, and emotional domains [38, 39].”
Robison, M. K., Brewer, G. A., & Torres, A. (2022) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/tfyxa · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Milla-Cano, C., & Gatica-Ferrero, S. A. (2020) · Redalyc (Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México)
Tahmasbnezhad, S., Pasha, N. F., Firouzjah, M. H., & Homayouni, A. (2021) · Practice in Clinical Psychology · doi:10.32598/jpcp.9.2.703.1
Wilson, D. K., & Sperber, D. (1986)
WITHDRAWNPreprint
Morison, D. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/7c5sy
İzmir, S. B. İ., AKTAN, Z. D., & Ercan, E. S. (2024) · Applied Neuropsychology Child · doi:10.1080/21622965.2024.2341251 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Like current research findings, studies show that working memory affects emotion regulation even in patients diagnosed with ADHD and even in the presence of other psychiatric disorders comorbid to ADHD (Groves et al., 2020; 2022; Sj € owall et al., 2013).”
Lewis, J., & Lewis, O. (2024) · IntechOpen eBooks · doi:10.5772/intechopen.1006972
Biofeedback no aperfeiçoamento da autorregulação emocional em crianças com TDAH
Júnior, A. A. S., de Melo, E. K. M., Lima, G. M. Á. B., Paiva, H. H. P. D. S., Lima, L. D. E. S. M., Barros, P. D. T. S., de Matos, P. G. S., de Matos, D. C., Júnior, G. A. C., & Silva, F. B. (2024) · Revista Neurociências · doi:10.34024/rnc.2024.v32.19538
Emotional Dysregulation and Attention
Wasserman, T. H., & Wasserman, L. D. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-78732-4_11
Zheng, Q., Hui, B. K. H., Li, J., & Shum, K. K. (2025) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-025-01867-7
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Interdisciplinary Approaches to Challenges: Law Enforcement, Psychology and Security in Focus
Strzępek, K., Marschalkó, E. E., Miklósi, M., Muharemi, A., Pereira, T. N., Póka, T., Rácz, S., Regényi, K. M., Saganová, M., Silva, I., et al. (2025) · Ludovika Egyetemi Kiadó eBooks · doi:10.36250/01260_00
Untreated ADHD contributes to the school-to-prison pipeline and related racial disparities
Glenn, A. L., Thompson, O. K., & Mosley, T. K. (2025) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2025.108551
Concluding insights on integrated mental healthcare
Reddy, K. J. (2025) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-43908-7.00020-3
Gårdvik, K. S., Rygg, M., Torgersen, T., Wallander, J. L., Lydersen, S., & Indredavik, M. S. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.15569056
Dysregulation of Epistemic Emotions in ADHD: Towards an Integrative Model
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“…(2023) propose that emotional dysregulation may induce some of the classical symptoms of ADHD, such as impulsivity and inattention, and others have shown that in individuals with ADHD, levels of impulsivity and hyperactivity can predict the severity of emotional dysregulation (Groves et al. 2020).”
TALE and Hox Transcription Factors Control Adult Behaviors in ZebrafishPreprint
Adkins, A. M., Glowinski, K., Kim, Y.-I., Wright, E., Bennett, C. E., Nelson, J. C., & Sagerström, C. G. (2026) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.64898/2026.03.16.712211
“Clinically, such deficits manifest as reduced cognitive flexibility, working memory impairments, and difficulty integrating new information—features that can exacerbate emotional dysregulation and stress sensitivity (Raio et al. 2017; Peckham et al. 2019; Groves et al. 2020).”
Karakaya, S., & Öncü, B. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1761915
“Such dysregulation —— naturally leads to the concept of emotional eating which refers to the tendency to overeat in response to negative emotional states such as anxiety or irritability (27).”
Tamm, L., Quiroz, M., Peugh, J., Epstein, J. N., & Becker, S. P. (2026) · Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/10445463261445015
“Interestingly, ER seems to rely on many of the same neural networks involved in WM (Horner et al., 2025; Morawetz et al., 2020), and thus, it is perhaps not surprising that WM has been associated with ER across developmental levels and a variety of methodologies (Groves et al., 2020).”
InfluentialScreen exposure and mediators of executive function in children with ADHD
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Peer Functioning Among Children With ADHD in Early Childhood: The Role of Emotion Dysregulation
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TALE and Hox Transcription Factors Modulate Adult Behaviors in Zebrafish
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“Clinically, such deficits manifest as reduced cognitive flexibility, working memory impairments, and difficulty integrating new infor-mation—features that can exacerbate emotional dysregula - tion and stress sensitivity (Raio et al. 2017; Peckham et al. 2019; Groves et al. 2020 ).”
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“11 Sheridan analyzed the brain activation patterns of 10 children with ADHD during a working memory task.”
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- Authors
- Groves, N. B., Kofler, M. J., Wells, E. L., Day, T. N., & Chan, E. S. M.
- Affiliations
- Florida State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Kofler, Michael J.
- Venue
- Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology
- Published
- 2020-01-03
- Volume
- 48
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 525-537
- ISSN
- 0091-0627 (ISSN-L)
- 1573-2835
- PMC
- PMC7318097
- OpenAlex
- W2996877477
- Cited by
- 75
- References
- 115
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 11 · 2020: 5
- FWCI
- 6.02
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01 MH115048)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Keywords
- attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, working memory, emotion regulation, emotional dysregulation, hyperactive-impulsive symptoms, inattention, children, parent and teacher ratings
- MeSH terms
- Emotional Regulation, Adolescent, Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity, Child, Female, Humans, Impulsive Behavior, Male, Memory, Short-Term, Neuropsychological Tests, Parents, Executive Function
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