A Meta-analysis of Executive Components of Working Memory
Open accessAbstract
Working memory (WM) enables the online maintenance and manipulation of information and is central to intelligent cognitive functioning. Much research has investigated executive processes of WM in order to understand the operations that make WM "work." However, there is yet little consensus regarding how executive processes of WM are organized. Here, we used quantitative meta-analysis to summarize data from 36 experiments that examined executive processes of WM. Experiments were categorized into 4 component functions central to WM: protecting WM from external distraction (distractor resistance), preventing irrelevant memories from intruding into WM (intrusion resistance), shifting attention within WM (shifting), and updating the contents of WM (updating). Data were also sorted by content (verbal, spatial, object). Meta-analytic results suggested that rather than dissociating into distinct functions, 2 separate frontal regions were recruited across diverse executive demands. One region was located dorsally in the caudal superior frontal sulcus and was especially sensitive to spatial content. The other was located laterally in the midlateral prefrontal cortex and showed sensitivity to nonspatial content. We propose that dorsal-"where"/ventral-"what" frameworks that have been applied to WM maintenance also apply to executive processes of WM. Hence, WM can largely be simplified to a dual selection model.
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Across meta-analyses using traditional neuropsychological executive function tests for children with ADHD, 33%-50% of cases exhibited executive function deficits, including 30%-37% with impaired working memory and 21%-46% with impaired inhibitory control.
“across meta-analyses using traditional neuropsychological executive function tests for children with ADHD, 33%-50% of cases exhibited executive function deficits (30%-37% impaired working memory, 21%-46% impaired inhibitory control).90,144–149”
From Executive function deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder (2024) · cites this paper as [149]
Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 1 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredConjunction maps of activation during different tasks suggest that both children and adults recruit a common set of regions within the FPN and CON during diverse EF tasks.
“Conjunction maps of activation during different tasks (e.g., during inhibiting, updating, and shifting tasks), either with data estimated within one study [135, 138, 139] or with meta-analytic techniques [137, 140, 141], suggest that both children and adults recruit a common set of regions within the FPN and CON during diverse EF tasks.”
From The role of prefrontal cortex in cognitive control and executive function (2022) · cites this paper as [141]
The ALE Analyses by Function report overlapping activations across several working-memory executive tasks, including shifting and updating. However, Experiment Selection restricts the included studies to healthy young adults, so this paper does not support the claim about children. It also does not establish a common set of regions specifically within both the FPN and CON across these tasks. (LLM, conf=0.90)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredWorking memory is not a unitary construct.
“working memory is not a unitary construct (Nee et al., 2013; Wager & Smith, 2003)”
From Are Episodic Buffer Processes Intact in ADHD? Experimental Evidence and Linkage with Hyperactive Behavior (2018) · cites this paper as Nee et al., 2013
Nee et al. (2013) reported widespread bilateral fronto-parietal network activation during various types of working memory tasks.
“Nee et al. (2013) reported that there was widespread bilateral fronto-parietal network activation during various types of working memory tasks.”
From Large-scale functional neural network correlates of response inhibition: an fMRI meta-analysis (2017) · cites this paper as Nee et al. (2013)
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Common and Distinct Neural Correlates of Perceptual and Memorial Selection
Nee, D., & Jonides, J. (2009) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.01.005 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Self-citationCortical Mechanisms of Cognitive Control for Shifting Attention in Vision and Working Memory
Tamber-Rosenau, B. J., Esterman, M. S., Chiu, Y., & Yantis, S. (2011) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.2011.21608 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Johnson, M. K. (2003) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/13.3.265 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Mohr, H. M., Goebel, R., & Linden, D. E. J. (2006) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.5232-05.2006 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Nee, D. E., & Jonides, J. J. (2010) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.09.002 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Self-citationNelson, J. K., Reuter‐Lorenz, P. A., Persson, J., Sylvester, C.-Y. C., & Jonides, J. J. (2008) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2008.12.001 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Self-citationNeural System for Controlling the Contents of Object Working Memory in Humans
Roth, J. K., Serences, J. T., & Courtney, S. M. (2005) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhj096 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
The neurobiology of visual attention: finding sources
Moore, T. (2006) · Current Opinion in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.conb.2006.03.009 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Barde, L. H. F., & Thompson‐Schill, S. L. (2002) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/089892902320474508 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Dissociable Interference-Control Processes in Perception and Memory
Nee, D. E., & Jonides, J. J. (2008) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02114.x · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Self-citationNeuroimaging of Human MemoryLinking cognitive processes to neural systems
Rösler, F., Ranganath, C., Röder, B., et al. (2009) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199217298.001.0001 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Persistent neural activity in the human frontal cortex when maintaining space that is off the map
Tark, K., & Curtis, C. E. (2009) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn.2406 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Is the Prefrontal Cortex Necessary for Establishing Cognitive Sets?
Rowe, J. B., Sakai, K., Lund, T. E., Ramsøy, T. Z., Christensen, M. S., Baaré, W. F. C., Paulson, O. B., & Passingham, R. E. (2007) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2349-07.2007 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Interfering with working memory in humans
Mottaghy, F. M. (2005) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.05.037 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
eCarp, J. (2010) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2010.00231 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Similar and dissociable mechanisms for attention to internal versus external information
Roth, J. K., Johnson, M. K., Raye, C. L., & Constable, R. T. (2009) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.07.002 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Interference resolution in spatial working memory
Leung, H., & Zhang, J. X. (2004) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.07.053 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
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Toward characterizing the neural correlates of component processes of cognition
Johnson, M. R., & Johnson, M. K. (2009) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199217298.003.0010 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
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Friedman, N. P., & Miyake, A. (2017) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2016.04.023 · Cited by 1,834 · see citing works
The role of prefrontal cortex in cognitive control and executive function
Friedman, N. P., & Robbins, T. W. (2022) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/s41386-021-01132-0 · Cited by 1,737 · see citing works
“, during inhibiting, updating, and shifting tasks), either with data estimated within one study [135, 138, 139] or with meta-analytic techniques [137, 140, 141], suggest that both children and adults recruit a common set of regions within the FPN and CON during diverse EF tasks.”
ResultThe neuroscience of working memory capacity and training
Constantinidis, C., & Klingberg, T. (2016) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn.2016.43 · Cited by 533 · see citing works
Large-scale functional neural network correlates of response inhibition: an fMRI meta-analysis
Zhang, R., Geng, X., & Lee, T. M. C. (2017) · Brain Structure and Function · doi:10.1007/s00429-017-1443-x · Cited by 398 · see citing works
Anxiety and attention to threat: cognitive mechanisms and treatment with attention bias modification
Mogg, K., & Bradley, B. P. (2016) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2016.08.001 · Cited by 313 · see citing works
Brain correlates of hypnosis: A systematic review and meta-analytic exploration
Landry, M., Lifshitz, M., & Raz, A. (2017) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.02.020 · Cited by 295 · see citing works
Andrews, P. W., Bharwani, A., Lee, K. R., Fox, M., & Thomson, J. A. (2015) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.01.018 · Cited by 281 · see citing works
The hierarchical organization of the lateral prefrontal cortex
Nee, D. E., & D'Esposito, M. (2016) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.12112 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
Self-citationIordan, A. D., Dolcos, S., & Dolcos, F. (2013) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00200 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
The cognitive neuropsychology of obsessive-compulsive disorder: a critical review
Abramovitch, A., & Cooperman, A. (2015) · Journal of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jocrd.2015.01.002 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Working memory and organizational skills problems in <scp>ADHD</scp>
Kofler, M. J., Sarver, D. E., Harmon, S. L., Moltisanti, A., Aduen, P. A., Soto, E. F., & Ferretti, N. (2018) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12773 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
The case against specialized visual-spatial short-term memory
Morey, C. C. (2018) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000155 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Dricu, M., & Frühholz, S. (2016) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.10.020 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Working memory and short-term memory deficits in ADHD: A bifactor modeling approach
Kofler, M. J., Singh, L. J., Soto, E. F., Chan, E. S. M., Miller, C. E., Harmon, S. L., & Spiegel, J. A. (2020) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000641 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
“…manipulation of information held in shortterm memory, and includes interconnected functions of the mid-lateral prefrontal cortex that guide behavior via the updating, dual-processing, and temporal/sequential manipulation of internally-held information (Nee et al., 2013; Wager & Smith, 2003).”
BackgroundThe neural architecture of executive functions is established by middle childhood
Engelhardt, L. E., Harden, K. P., Tucker-Drob, E. M., & Church, J. A. (2019) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.10.024 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
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“In contrast, working memory refers to the active, top-down manipulation of information held in short-term memory, and includes interrelated functions of the mid-lateral prefrontal cortex that involve continuous updating (active addition and deletion of items from working memory), dualprocessing (diverse processes that…”
InfluentialNeurocognitive and behavioral predictors of social problems in ADHD: A Bayesian framework.
Kofler, M. J., Harmon, S. L., Aduen, P. A., Day, T. N., Austin, K. E., Spiegel, J. A., Irwin, L., & Sarver, D. E. (2018) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000416 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“…of information held in short-term memory (STM; Baddeley, 2007), and includes interrelated functions of the midlateral prefrontal cortex and interconnected networks that involve supervisory attentional control, updating, processing, and reordering (Nee et al., 2012; Wager & Smith, 2003).”
BackgroundHeinzel, S., Kaufmann, C., Grützmann, R., Hummel, R., Klawohn, J., Riesel, A., Bey, K., Lennertz, L., Wagner, M., & Kathmann, N. (2018) · NeuroImage: Clinical · doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2017.10.039 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
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Executive function deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder
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“Interestingly, however, poor performance on inhibitory control tests was attributable, in large part, to the tests’ working memory demands rather than reflecting actual inhibition deficits in children with ADHD 23,149,150 .”
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Maintenance of non-consciously presented information engages the prefrontal cortex
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“More broadly, the fi eld would bene fi t from increased application of the experimental psychopathology framework to determine the impact of these executive functions, and other putative causal mechanisms, in producing ADHD behavioral symptoms and functional impairments (e.g., 63, 116, 118).”
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Neural correlates of working memory training: An fMRI meta-analysis
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The asymmetry of working memory training transfer: A systematic review and meta-analysis
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“…a priori auxiliary assumptions, predict no systematic directional advantage because transfer is expected to depend primarily on shared substrates/processes (e.g., frontoparietal network engagement; Nee et al., 2013; Rottschy et al., 2012), and such overlap is inherently nondi-rectional (Fig.”
- Authors
- Nee, D. E., Brown, J. W., Askren, M. K., Berman, M. G., Demiralp, E., Krawitz, A., & Jonides, J.
- Affiliations
- University of Michigan (US)
- Indiana University Bloomington (US)
- University of Washington (US)
- Rotman Research Institute (CA)
- University of Victoria (CA)
- Venue
- Cerebral Cortex
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2012-02-07
- Volume
- 23
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 264-282
- ISSN
- 1047-3211 (ISSN-L)
- 1460-2199
- PMC
- PMC3584956
- OpenAlex
- W2157840419
- Semantic Scholar
- 65f37b0b79831455a78a6e90016f98d7f1ac6bae
- Cited by
- 544
- References
- 122
- Citations by year
- 2026: 19 · 2025: 30 · 2024: 43 · 2023: 31 · 2022: 58 · 2021: 37 · 2020: 32 · 2019: 43 · 2018: 56 · 2017: 46 · 2016: 43 · 2015: 46 · 2014: 30 · 2013: 25 · 2012: 3
- FWCI
- 4.87
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Cerebral Cortex (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (0822748)
- Intelligence Advanced Research Projects Activity (D10PC20023)
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH-60655, R01MH060655)
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (R01DA026457, R03DA023462)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neurobiology of Language and Bilingualism
- Keywords
- working memory, executive function, intrusion resistance, attentional shift, working memory updating, spatial working memory, verbal working memory, object working memory
- MeSH terms
- Brain, Humans, Memory, Short-Term
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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