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The ontogeny of fairness in seven societies
Abstract
A sense of fairness plays a critical role in supporting human cooperation. Adult norms of fair resource sharing vary widely across societies, suggesting that culture shapes the acquisition of fairness behaviour during childhood. Here we examine how fairness behaviour develops in children from seven diverse societies, testing children from 4 to 15 years of age (n = 866 pairs) in a standardized resource decision task. We measured two key aspects of fairness decisions: disadvantageous inequity aversion (peer receives more than self) and advantageous inequity aversion (self receives more than a peer). We show that disadvantageous inequity aversion emerged across all populations by middle childhood. By contrast, advantageous inequity aversion was more variable, emerging in three populations and only later in development. We discuss these findings in relation to questions about the universality and cultural specificity of human fairness.
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“For instance, [40] compared the acquisition of fairness behaviour in seven different societies: Canada, India, Mexico, Peru, Senegal, Uganda, and the USA, and found that while children from all cultures developed aversion towards disadvantageous inequity (avoid receiving less than a peer), advantageous inequity aversion (avoid receiving more than a peer) was more prevalent in the West.”
From Re-imagining Algorithmic Fairness in India and Beyond (2021) · cites this paper as [40]
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“Indeed, the two types of inequity aversion have different developmental trajectories (Blake & McAuliffe, 2011; LoBue et al. 2011; Shaw et al., 2016; Sheskin et al., 2014; Takimoto, et al., 2010) and are differentially prevalent across cultures (Blake et al., 2015).”
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Self-citationHow economic inequality affects prosocial behavior in children across development
Kirkland, K., Jetten, J., Wilks, M., & Nielsen, M. (2021) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2021.105202 · Cited by 12
Li, Y., Li, P., Cai, J., Qian, X., & He, J. (2022) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2022.105426 · Cited by 12
Will she give you two cookies for one chocolate? Children’s intuitions about trades
Echelbarger, M., Good, K., & Shaw, A. (2020) · Judgment and Decision Making · doi:10.1017/s1930297500008160 · Cited by 12
“In light of findings demonstrating cross-cultural differences in how children distribute resources (e.g., Blake et al., 2015; Choshen-Hillel et al., 2019; Rochat et al., 2009) as well their risk and time preferences (i.e., children living in areas with greater market integration were observed to be…”
BackgroundChildren’s consideration of collaboration and merit when making sharing decisions in private
Schäfer, M., Haun, D. B. M., & Tomasello, M. (2022) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2022.105609 · Cited by 11
“In forced-choice situations, 3-and 4-year-olds across a variety of diverse cultures are more likely to accept distributions that favor themselves over ones that favor a partner (Blake et al., 2015; Fehr et al., 2008).”
Perspective taking as a mechanism for children’s developing preferences for equitable distributions
Sobel, D. M., & Blankenship, J. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-84968-2 · Cited by 12
Ahl, R. E., Hannan, K., Amir, D., Baker, A., Sheskin, M., & McAuliffe, K. (2023) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2023.101313 · Cited by 11
Self-citationThe effect of group status on children's hierarchy‐reinforcing beliefs
Rizzo, M. T., Roberts, S. O., & Rhodes, M. (2023) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.13393 · Cited by 15
Social anxiety in modern societies from an evolutionary perspective
Haugan, T. (2023) · Discover Psychology · doi:10.1007/s44202-023-00074-6 · Cited by 12
“Most people seem to prefer the fair distribution of resources [136, 137] which is perceived as being more important than equal distribution [138].”
BackgroundWaste Aversion Reduces Inequity Aversion Among Chinese Children
Zhang, Z., & Benozio, A. (2021) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13586 · Cited by 11
Cheating and the effect of promises in Indian and German children
Kanngießer, P., Sunderarajan, J., & Woike, J. K. (2023) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13952 · Cited by 11
“While these studies suggest a common developmental trend across societies, larger-scale comparative studies are needed to determine cross-societal similarities and differences in developmental trajectories and convergence to adult-like behavior (Blake et al., 2015; House et al., 2020).”
BackgroundHuman punishment is not primarily motivated by inequality
Marczyk, J. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0171298 · Cited by 11
Getting What You Pay For: Children's Use of Market Norms to Regulate Exchanges
Echelbarger, M., Gelman, S. A., & Kalish, C. W. (2018) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13088 · Cited by 11
The Development of Prosocial Attention Across Two Cultures
Hepach, R., & Herrmann, E. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00138 · Cited by 12
Children’s experience of economic inequality: How earning position influences prosocial behavior
Kirkland, K., Jetten, J., Wilks, M., & Nielsen, M. (2021) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2021.101043 · Cited by 12
Stagnaro, M. N., Arechar, A. A., & Rand, D. G. (2016) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2720585 · Cited by 12
How Experiments with Children Inform Economics
List, J. A., Petrie, R., & Samek, A. S. (2021) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w28825 · Cited by 13
The emergence of cooperative behaviors, norms, and strategies across five diverse societies
Amir, D., Ahl, R. E., Jordan, M. R., Bolotin, H. L., Bogese, M. J., González, G. T., Callaghan, T. C., Sugiyama, L. S., Otali, E., Tusiime, P. K., et al. (2026) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.adw9995 · Cited by 11
“…across societies, most notably that children in all sites tended to demonstrate more self-interested behavior in early life, with more similar starting points at younger ages across our tasks, providing additional support for this recurrent finding in the literature [e.g., ( 18 , 27 )].”
InfluentialSelf-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Blake, P. R., McAuliffe, K., Corbit, J., Callaghan, T. C., Barry, O., Bowie, A., Kleutsch, L., Kramer, K. L., Ross, E., Vongsachang, H., Wrangham, R., & Warneken, F.
- Affiliations
- Boston University (US)
- Boston College (US)
- Simon Fraser University (CA)
- St. Francis Xavier University (CA)
- Cheikh Anta Diop University (SN)
- Harvard University (US)
- University of Utah (US)
- Corresponding author
- Blake, P. R.
- McAuliffe, K.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Nature
- Published
- 2015-11-18
- Volume
- 528
- Issue
- 7581
- Pages
- 258-261
- ISSN
- 0028-0836 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-4687
- OpenAlex
- W2177707862
- Cited by
- 534
- References
- 33
- Citations by year
- 2026: 40 · 2025: 51 · 2024: 92 · 2023: 59 · 2022: 62 · 2021: 54 · 2020: 38 · 2019: 38 · 2018: 32 · 2017: 38 · 2016: 28 · 2015: 2
- FWCI
- 96.55
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Nature (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Experimental Behavioral Economics Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Cultural Differences and Values
- Keywords
- fairness, ontogeny, children, cultural variation, resource sharing, cooperation, developmental timing, cross-cultural comparison
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Age Factors, Child, Child, Preschool, Cooperative Behavior, Culture, Decision Making, Female, Humans, Male, Social Behavior, Social Change
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