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The ontogeny of fairness in seven societies
Abstract
A sense of fairness plays a critical role in supporting human cooperation. Adult norms of fair resource sharing vary widely across societies, suggesting that culture shapes the acquisition of fairness behaviour during childhood. Here we examine how fairness behaviour develops in children from seven diverse societies, testing children from 4 to 15 years of age (n = 866 pairs) in a standardized resource decision task. We measured two key aspects of fairness decisions: disadvantageous inequity aversion (peer receives more than self) and advantageous inequity aversion (self receives more than a peer). We show that disadvantageous inequity aversion emerged across all populations by middle childhood. By contrast, advantageous inequity aversion was more variable, emerging in three populations and only later in development. We discuss these findings in relation to questions about the universality and cultural specificity of human fairness.
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“For instance, [40] compared the acquisition of fairness behaviour in seven different societies: Canada, India, Mexico, Peru, Senegal, Uganda, and the USA, and found that while children from all cultures developed aversion towards disadvantageous inequity (avoid receiving less than a peer), advantageous inequity aversion (avoid receiving more than a peer) was more prevalent in the West.”
From Re-imagining Algorithmic Fairness in India and Beyond (2021) · cites this paper as [40]
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Association between arginine vasopressin receptor 1A ( AVPR1A ) polymorphism and inequity aversion
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BackgroundChannel coordination under retailer's (sub)conscious preferences of loss aversion and fairness
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Self-citationReward type influences adults’ rejections of inequality in a task designed for children
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“Fairness preferences develop in childhood, and their developmental trajectory is somewhat canalized across contexts (1, 6, 15 – 17).”
Is Distributional Justice Equivalent to Prosocial Sharing in Children’s Cognition?
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“Blake et al. (2015), for example, found that children from WEIRD populations as well as Uganda displayed an aversion to advantageous inequity with age more so than children from a set of other nonWEIRD populations.”
BackgroundInfluentialKeshvari, F., Hartlin, S., Capozzi‐Davis, O., Moore, C. L., & Corbit, J. D. (2021) · Social Development · doi:10.1111/sode.12557 · Cited by 5
Self-citationThe impact of social comparison and (un)fairness on upstream indirect reciprocity: Evidence from ERP
Liu, M., Zhou, J., Liu, Y., & Liu, S. (2022) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2022.108398 · Cited by 5
Are Nonhuman Animals Averse to Inequity? A Meta-Analysis [Pre-Print]Preprint
Ritov, O., Völter, C. J., Raihani, N., & Engelmann, J. M. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/86vkf · Cited by 5
Children Demand an Equal Share of Worthless Objects
Jacobs, C., Grueneisen, S., Over, H., & Engelmann, J. M. (2025) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.70062 · Cited by 4
Collaboration induces debt-motivated altruism
McGrath, M. C. (2025) · Current Research in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.crbeha.2025.100173 · Cited by 4
Win-win or lose-lose: Children prefer the form of equality
Ma, R., Chen, Y., Xu, Q., & Wu, N. (2024) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104251 · Cited by 4
Children's needs-oriented decision-making: A developmental perspective
Peng, Q., Li, M., & Li, H. (2024) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2024.101506 · Cited by 4
The Development of Cumulative Cultural Learning in Context
Legare, C. H., & Baniahmadi, M. (2025) · Human Development · doi:10.1159/000549564 · Cited by 4
“This inequity aversion suggests that children acquire a sense of fairness and cooperation not solely through explicit instruction but through everyday social participation and observation (Blake et al., 2015).”
Children’s group loyalty is related to parental in-group collectivism
Gampe, A., Blaumeiser, J., & Daum, M. M. (2021) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2021.101130 · Cited by 4
Long, C., Hu, X., Qi, G., & Zhang, L. (2022) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2022.108343 · Cited by 5
Pope, S. M., Lew‐Levy, S., Maurits, L., Boyette, A. H., Ellis‐Davies, K., Haun, D. B. M., Over, H., & House, B. R. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0276845 · Cited by 4
“For example, studies have found increasing societal differences in both generosity in a binary Dictator Game [19, 29, 34] and advantageous inequity in the Inequity Aversion Game [35].”
BackgroundEmotions before actions: When children see costs as causal
Sehl, C. G., Friedman, O., & Denison, S. (2024) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2024.105774 · Cited by 4
Kuwabara, M., & Smith, L. B. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.778960 · Cited by 4
Vale, G. L., & Brosnan, S. F. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-47829-6_1084-1 · Cited by 4
The emergence of cooperative behaviors, norms, and strategies across five diverse societiesPreprint
Amir, D., Ahl, R. E., Jordan, M. R., Bolotin, H. L., Bogese, M. J., González, G. T., Callaghan, T. C., Sugiyama, L. S., Otali, E., Tusiime, P. K., et al. (2024) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/f7ud4 · Cited by 4
Self-citationThe role of social motivation in sharing and fairness: insights from Williams syndrome
Foti, F., Costanzo, F., Fabrizio, C., Termine, A., Menghini, D., Iaquinta, T., Vicari, S., Petrosini, L., & Blake, P. R. (2024) · Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders · doi:10.1186/s11689-024-09568-3 · Cited by 3
“We used the IG apparatus that has been used in multiple studies [61, 62].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationA universal of human social cognition: Children from 17 communities process gaze in similar ways
Bohn, M., Prein, J. C., Ayikoru, A., Bednarski, F. M., Dzabatou, A., Frank, M. C., Henderson, A. M. E., Isabella, J., Kalbitz, J., Kanngießer, P., et al. (2026) · Child Development · doi:10.1093/chidev/aacaf017 · Cited by 3
“…and absolute differences between communities are interpreted as a signal of different underlying cognitive processes while no differences are taken to support the existence of a psychological universal (Blake et al., 2015; House et al., 2020; Kanngiesser et al., 2022; Van Leeuwen et al., 2018).”
The social learning and development of intra- and inter-ethnic sharing norms in the Congo Basin
Lew‐Levy, S., Maurits, L., Boyette, A. H., Ellis‐Davies, K., Haun, D. B. M., Vieira, W., Dzabatou, A., Mbongo, B., Ntamboudila, F. K., Ndenguele, R., et al. (2026) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0340388 · Cited by 3
“…from cross-cultural research that highlights middle childhood and early adolescence as important periods for children’s sensitivity to (and internalization of) norms for fairness and sharing [37,115,36], it does so by introducing robust research methods that avoid the limitations of prior research.”
Metadata
- Authors
- Blake, P. R., McAuliffe, K., Corbit, J., Callaghan, T. C., Barry, O., Bowie, A., Kleutsch, L., Kramer, K. L., Ross, E., Vongsachang, H., Wrangham, R., & Warneken, F.
- Affiliations
- Boston University (US)
- Boston College (US)
- Simon Fraser University (CA)
- St. Francis Xavier University (CA)
- Cheikh Anta Diop University (SN)
- Harvard University (US)
- University of Utah (US)
- Corresponding author
- Blake, P. R.
- McAuliffe, K.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Nature
- Published
- 2015-11-18
- Volume
- 528
- Issue
- 7581
- Pages
- 258-261
- ISSN
- 0028-0836 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-4687
- OpenAlex
- W2177707862
- Cited by
- 534
- References
- 33
- Citations by year
- 2026: 40 · 2025: 51 · 2024: 92 · 2023: 59 · 2022: 62 · 2021: 54 · 2020: 38 · 2019: 38 · 2018: 32 · 2017: 38 · 2016: 28 · 2015: 2
- FWCI
- 96.55
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Nature (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Experimental Behavioral Economics Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Cultural Differences and Values
- Keywords
- fairness, ontogeny, children, cultural variation, resource sharing, cooperation, developmental timing, cross-cultural comparison
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Age Factors, Child, Child, Preschool, Cooperative Behavior, Culture, Decision Making, Female, Humans, Male, Social Behavior, Social Change
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