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Understanding immunosenescence to improve responses to vaccines
Open accessAbstract
In the older adult, the benefits of vaccination to prevent infectious disease are limited, mainly because of the adaptive immune system's inability to generate protective immunity. The age-dependent decrease in immunological competence, often referred to as 'immunosenescence', results from the progressive deterioration of innate and adaptive immune responses. Most insights into mechanisms of immunological aging have been derived from studies of mouse models. In this Review, we explore how well such models are applicable to understanding the aging process throughout the 80-100 years of human life and discuss recent advances in identifying and characterizing the mechanisms that underlie age-associated defective adaptive immunity in humans.
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“These and other models, for which it has been shown that accelerated aging depends, at least partly, on cellular senescence, are valuable for studying the impact of senescence on health and lifespan”
From Guidelines for minimal information on cellular senescence experimentation in vivo (2024) · cites this paper as [100]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“Mouse models of rapid telomere shortening, dysfunctional mitosis or impaired DNA repair (Terc, BubR1, and Ercc1 mutant mice, respectively), display high levels of cellular senescence and accelerated aging86,99,100.”
From Guidelines for minimal information on cellular senescence experimentation in vivo (2024) · cites this paper as [100]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“Evidence of waning adaptive immunity is already apparent in mid adulthood, as early as at the age of 50 years, with increasing clinical relevance in the 7th–10th decade of life”
From Successful and Maladaptive T Cell Aging (2017) · cites this paper as Goronzy and Weyand, 2013
In the citing paper
“Mechanistically, immunosenescence is only partially explained by organismal and cellular senescence.”
From Immunosenescence and Its Hallmarks: How to Oppose Aging Strategically? A Review of Potential Options for Therapeutic Intervention (2019) · cites this paper as [23]
In the citing paper
“Therefore, these hallmarks of immunosenescence would be markedly affected by the history of the individual exposure to pathogens (6, 23).”
From Immunosenescence and Its Hallmarks: How to Oppose Aging Strategically? A Review of Potential Options for Therapeutic Intervention (2019) · cites this paper as [23]
In the citing paper
“The hallmarks of immunosenescence include: (i) a reduced ability to respond to new antigens; (ii) the accumulation of memory T cells; (iii) a lingering level of low-grade inflammation termed “inflamm-aging.””
From Immunosenescence and Its Hallmarks: How to Oppose Aging Strategically? A Review of Potential Options for Therapeutic Intervention (2019) · cites this paper as [23]
In the citing paper
“T cell clones specific for HCMV dominate the repertoire in the older people and contribute to the contraction in diversity in the memory compartment (23).”
From Immunosenescence and Its Hallmarks: How to Oppose Aging Strategically? A Review of Potential Options for Therapeutic Intervention (2019) · cites this paper as [23]
In the citing paper
“In contrast, high frequencies of antigen-specific T cells reactive to HCMV persist throughout life.”
From Immunosenescence and Its Hallmarks: How to Oppose Aging Strategically? A Review of Potential Options for Therapeutic Intervention (2019) · cites this paper as [23]
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“For example, as an organism ages it may begin to suffer the ill-effects of immunosenescence, where it becomes less able to control the fitness consequences of infection due to age-related corruption of its immune system ( Goronzy and Weyand, 2013 ).”
BackgroundMori, M., Yokoyama, A., Shichida, A., Sasuga, K., Maekawa, T., & Moriyama, T. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-46823-4 · Cited by 20
“In terms of adverse age-related impact on the frequency and duration of side effects following vaccine, decline in immune function with age, referred to as immunosenescence, should be considered 20,21 .”
BackgroundFlitter, B. A., Greco, S. N., Lester, C. A., Neuhaus, E. D., Tedjakusuma, S. N., Shriver, M. C., Cuevas‐Juárez, E., Gutierrez, S., Braun, M. R., Pasetti, M. F., et al. (2025) · Science Translational Medicine · doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.ads0556 · Cited by 17
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“The effectiveness of the immune response descends with age, specifically in the latter stages of life [54-56].”
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Le vieillissement du système immunitaire : du fondamental à la clinique
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Precision immunization: a new trend in human vaccination
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Altered Ca2+ Homeostasis in Immune Cells during Aging: Role of Ion Channels
Zöphel, D., Hof, C., & Lis, A. (2020) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms22010110 · Cited by 17
“Unfavorable alterations of T cells subpopulations result in a decreased CD4+/CD8+ ratio and the accumulation of senescent and terminally differentiated T cells (reviewed in [34,35]).”
BackgroundBiomarkers of Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors in Non–Small Cell Lung Cancer: Beyond PD-L1
Cabezón‐Gutiérrez, L., Custodio‐Cabello, S., Palka-Kotlowska, M., Viteri, S. A., & Khosravi‐Shahi, P. (2021) · Clinical Lung Cancer · doi:10.1016/j.cllc.2021.03.006 · Cited by 17
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Immunosenescence: implications for vaccination programs in the elderly
Bowdish, D. M. E., Loukov, D., & Naidoo, A. (2015) · Vaccine Development and Therapy · doi:10.2147/vdt.s63888 · Cited by 16
“Despite the importance of preventing these infections and relatively high vaccination rates, protection is still suboptimal due to decreasing immune function with age.(11) V ac ci ne : D ev el op m en t a nd T he ra py d ow nl oa de d fr om h ttp s: //w w w .”
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“Immunosenescence is often characterized by thymic involution and reduced output and function of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), thus resulting in a poor response to vaccination and an increased susceptibility to infection in the elderly 7, 8 . According to the Swedish OCTO and NONA immune longitudinal studies, immune…”
BackgroundTurano, P. S., Akbulut, E., Dewald, H. K., Vasilopoulos, T., Fitzgerald-Bocarsly, P., Herbig, U., & Martínez-Zamudio, R. I. (2026) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2025.116795 · Cited by 16
“7,8 Whether the immune system itself undergoes senescence with age remains poorly understood.”
Unraveling the ROS-Inflammation-Immune Balance: A New Perspective on Aging and Disease
Fang, S., Jiang, M., Jiao, J., Zhao, H., Liu, D., Gao, D., Wang, T., Yang, Z. X., & Yuan, H. (2025) · Aging and Disease · doi:10.14336/ad.2024.1253 · Cited by 18
“Moreover, the immune system's capacity to effectively combat cancer cells is compromised [85].”
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Franzese, O., Barbaccia, M. L., Bonmassar, E., & Graziani, G. (2018) · Chemotherapy · doi:10.1159/000487534 · Cited by 17
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“In fact, a decrease in immune function with aging has been reported in the acquired immune system (34).”
BackgroundRecent Advances in the Aging Microenvironment of Breast Cancer
Jiang, X., Shen, H., Xi, S., Fang, J., Lu, Y., Lu, Y., Zheng, J., & Fu, P. (2022) · Cancers · doi:10.3390/cancers14204990 · Cited by 17
“Immunosenescence mainly manifests as persistent low-grade inflammatory responses, impaired responsiveness to neoantigens, and an increased incidence of autoimmune responses [65].”
BackgroundIdentification of novel pathways and immune profiles related to sarcopenia
Abdelrahman, Z., Wang, X., Wang, D., Zhang, T., Zhang, Y., Wang, X., & Chen, Z. (2023) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2023.928285 · Cited by 16
“The decline in immune function with age, known as immunosenescence, has been well-documented (6, 7).”
BackgroundOverview of Innate Immune Cell Landscape in Liver Aging
Lin, Y., Li, Q., Liang, G., Xiao, N., Yang, J., Yang, X. M., Zhang, H., Zhang, C., & Liu, A. (2023) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms25010181 · Cited by 19
“In the elderly, there is a decline in the function of the immune system, also known as immunosenescence [1,2].”
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Original Antigenic Sin: Friend or Foe in Developing a Broadly Cross-Reactive Vaccine to Influenza?
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“Thus, immune responses in the elderly are largely derived from their antigen-experienced B cell repertoire (Goronzy and Weyand, 2013).”
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Targets of Immune Regeneration in Rheumatoid Arthritis
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“…risk of HZ in adults aged 50 and above is physiologically linked to age associated declines in cell-mediated immunity, particularly diminished T-cell functionality, which plays a crucial role in controlling VZV, consequently, this immunosenescence heightens vulnerability to HZ in older adults [40].”
Pneumococcal Vaccination in Immunocompromised Hosts: An Update
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“The strategy for an improvement in the response to vaccination is, therefore, multifactorial and includes improving memory immunity earlier on in adult life [60].”
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“immune function with age, referred to as “immunosenescence” (24).”
BackgroundImmune profiling of age and adjuvant-specific activation of human blood mononuclear cells in vitro
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Older Human B Cells and Antibodies
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Effective inactivated influenza vaccine for the elderly using a single-stranded RNA-based adjuvant
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“It undergoes progressive transformations and the agerelated decrease in immunological competence is often referred to as immunosenescence [7].”
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“This observation reflects the diminished immune responses in the elderly, an effect known as immunosenescence [3,4].”
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“This approach has been followed in previous works from the ORCHESTRA project [18,31]”
BackgroundMethodSenescent T Cells in Age-Related Diseases
Yu, P.-J., Zhou, M. L., Liu, Y., & Du, J. (2024) · Aging and Disease · doi:10.14336/ad.2024.0219 · Cited by 16
“Iterative or excessive TCR stimulation can cause a gradual change in downstream T cell telomerase activity, telomere erosion, irreparable DNA damage, and ultimately, dysfunctional replicative ability when T cells re-encounter the antigen, causing senescence [74,114–116].”
Metadata
- Authors
- Goronzy, J. J., & Weyand, C. M.
- Affiliations
- Stanford Medicine (US)
- VA Palo Alto Health Care System (US)
- Corresponding author
- Goronzy, Jörg J
- Venue
- Nature Immunology
- Published
- 2013-04-18
- Volume
- 14
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 428-436
- ISSN
- 1529-2908 (ISSN-L)
- 1529-2916
- PMC
- PMC4183346
- OpenAlex
- W1992431343
- Cited by
- 827
- References
- 115
- Citations by year
- 2026: 66 · 2025: 62 · 2024: 89 · 2023: 76 · 2022: 61 · 2021: 83 · 2020: 58 · 2019: 68 · 2018: 46 · 2017: 59 · 2016: 53 · 2015: 53 · 2014: 38 · 2013: 15
- FWCI
- 4.65
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Nature Immunology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (P01HL058000, R01HL117913)
- National Eye Institute (R01EY011916)
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (R01AI044142, U01AI089859, R01AI44142, R01AI108906, U19AI090019, R01AI108891, U19AI057266)
- National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (R01AR042527)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › T-cell and B-cell Immunology
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › Immune responses and vaccinations
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › Immunotherapy and Immune Responses
- Keywords
- immunosenescence, immunological aging, older adults, vaccine response, innate immune dysregulation, mouse models of aging
- MeSH terms
- Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Aging, Animals, Communicable Disease Control, Humans, Immunocompetence, Vaccination, Vaccines, Cellular Senescence, Mice, Adaptive Immunity
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