The DOI matches its Crossref record; 65 of the 65 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 32 of the 39 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
High-performance brain-to-text communication via handwriting
Open accessPublished version of a preprint
Abstract
Brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) can restore communication to people who have lost the ability to move or speak. So far, a major focus of BCI research has been on restoring gross motor skills, such as reaching and grasping 1-5 or point-and-click typing with a computer cursor 6,7. However, rapid sequences of highly dexterous behaviours, such as handwriting or touch typing, might enable faster rates of communication. Here we developed an intracortical BCI that decodes attempted handwriting movements from neural activity in the motor cortex and translates it to text in real time, using a recurrent neural network decoding approach. With this BCI, our study participant, whose hand was paralysed from spinal cord injury, achieved typing speeds of 90 characters per minute with 94.1% raw accuracy online, and greater than 99% accuracy offline with a general-purpose autocorrect. To our knowledge, these typing speeds exceed those reported for any other BCI, and are comparable to typical smartphone typing speeds of individuals in the age group of our participant (115 characters per minute)8. Finally, theoretical considerations explain why temporally complex movements, such as handwriting, may be fundamentally easier to decode than point-to-point movements. Our results open a new approach for BCIs and demonstrate the feasibility of accurately decoding rapid, dexterous movements years after paralysis.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
20 Own result · 11 Own interpretation · 7 Supported · 7 Partly supported · 3 No basis given · 2 No full text of the sources · 1 Supported so far · 1 Not supported · 1 Own method · accuracy not yet measured
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“During parameter optimization, the cursor gain is increased so as to increase typing rate, until the cursor moves so quickly that it becomes uncontrollable due to decoding errors22.”
§ High-performance brain-to-text communication via handwriting > Temporal variety improves decoding
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [22] Willett, F. R. et al. Signal-independent noise in intracortical brain–computer interfaces causes movement time properties inconsistent with Fitts’ law. J. Neural Eng. 14, 026010 (2017). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results section, “Effect of gain on movement time” (page unavailable), reports that increasing gain initially shortened target-acquisition time, but higher gains made cursor movements fast, inaccurate, and uncontrollable around targets. The paper relates this difficulty to decoding noise, but it studies cursor target acquisition, not typing rate, and does not describe the claimed typing-speed optimization procedure. (LLM, conf=0.85)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The speed of point-and-click BCIs is limited primarily by decoding accuracy.”
§ High-performance brain-to-text communication via handwriting > Temporal variety improves decoding
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [22] Willett, F. R. et al. Signal-independent noise in intracortical brain–computer interfaces causes movement time properties inconsistent with Fitts’ law. J. Neural Eng. 14, 026010 (2017). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results (Effect of gain on movement time; page unavailable) report that increasing cursor speed made movements fast but inaccurate, and the Introduction identifies signal-independent decoding noise as the root cause of the movement-time properties observed. This supports a speed–accuracy constraint in the intracortical cursor systems studied, but not the broader claim that decoding accuracy is the primary speed limit for point-and-click BCIs generally. (LLM, conf=0.84)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“EEG spellers based on oddball potentials or motor imagery typically achieve 1–5 characters per minute28–32.”
§ High-performance brain-to-text communication via handwriting > Discussion
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [28] Vansteensel, M. J. et al. Fully implanted brain–computer interface in a locked-in patient with ALS. N. Engl. J. Med. 375, 2060–2066 (2016). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results section, “Communication and Independent Home Use” (page unavailable), reports spelling times for one patient using a fully implanted interface. Our copy does not give a typical rate for EEG spellers based on oddball potentials or motor imagery; searches for those methods and their characters-per-minute rates found no such passage. (LLM, conf=0.76)
- Partly supportedcites [29] Nijboer, F. et al. A P300-based brain–computer interface for people with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Clin. Neurophysiol. 119, 1909–1916 (2008). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results report 1.2 and 2.1 selections per minute for the study’s P300 speller, which uses an oddball paradigm (Introduction). This supports the stated range for this speller in people with ALS, but the paper does not establish that EEG spellers generally achieve that rate or provide a rate for motor-imagery spellers. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.86)
- Partly supportedcites [30] Townsend, G. et al. A novel P300-based brain–computer interface stimulus presentation paradigm: moving beyond rows and columns. Clin. Neurophysiol. 121, 1109–1120 (2010). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion (§4.2; page unavailable) reports 4.10 selections/min for a previously studied P300 speller and 4.36 selections/min for this paper’s checkerboard P300 paradigm, both within the claimed range. It does not establish that 1–5 characters/min is typical across EEG spellers or report a rate for motor-imagery spellers. (LLM, conf=0.84)
- Partly supportedcites [31] McCane, L. M. et al. P300-based brain–computer interface (BCI) event-related potentials (ERPs): people with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) vs. age-matched controls. Clin. Neurophysiol. 126, 2124–2131 (2015). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Introduction (page unavailable) identifies the P300 speller as an oddball-response system that provides slow communication. The Methods describe a characters-per-minute measure, and the Results report communication rates for this study, but the passages do not state that EEG spellers typically achieve 1–5 characters per minute or address motor-imagery spellers. (LLM, conf=0.77)
- Partly supportedcites [32] Wolpaw, J. R. et al. Independent home use of a brain–computer interface by people with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Neurology 91, e258–e267 (2018). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results report an average of 2.9 (±1.3 SD) selections per minute for BCI applications used by people with ALS, within the claimed numerical range. The paper does not establish a typical rate of 1–5 characters per minute across EEG spellers based on oddball potentials or motor imagery; selections are also not necessarily characters. (LLM, conf=0.86)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Could not verify
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“For intracortical BCIs, the highest performing method has been point-and-click typing with a 2D computer cursor, peaking at 40 characters per minute 7”
§ High-performance brain-to-text communication via handwriting > Temporal variety improves decoding
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [7] Pandarinath, C. et al. High performance communication by people with paralysis using an intracortical brain–computer interface. eLife 6, e18554 (2017). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Introduction describes two-dimensional cursor control with click selection, and the Results say this study outperformed previous BCIs tested with people with motor impairment. The Results report T5’s average typing rate as 39.2 correct characters per minute, approximately 40, but do not identify 40 as a peak or an upper limit. (LLM, conf=0.85)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“The prior state-of-the-art for free typing in intracortical BCIs was 24.4 correct characters per minute 7.”
§ High-performance brain-to-text communication via handwriting > Decoding handwritten sentences
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [7] Pandarinath, C. et al. High performance communication by people with paralysis using an intracortical brain–computer interface. eLife 6, e18554 (2017). source
The Results report T6’s mean free typing rate as 24.4 correct characters per minute and describe those sessions as achieving, to the authors’ knowledge, the highest typing rate to date for a person with a physical disability using a BCI. This supports the citing paper’s description of that rate as the prior benchmark for free typing. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“We used a time-alignment technique to remove temporal variability11, revealing remarkably consistent underlying patterns of neural activity that are unique to each character (Fig. 1c).”
§ High-performance brain-to-text communication via handwriting > Neural representation of handwriting
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [11] Williams, A. H. et al. Discovering precise temporal patterns in large-scale neural recordings through robust and interpretable time warping. Neuron 105, 246–259 (2020). source
The citation is attached to the time-alignment technique, not the citing authors’ character-specific finding. The source’s Results section (“Time Warping Framework”) describes trial-by-trial time warping to correct variability in the timing of neural activity. (LLM, conf=0.91)
boosteddirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“Current microelectrode array technology has been shown to retain functionality for 1000+ days post implant37,38 (including here; see Extended Data Fig. 7)”
§ High-performance brain-to-text communication via handwriting > Discussion
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [37] Simeral, J. D., Kim, S.-P., Black, M. J., Donoghue, J. P. & Hochberg, L. R. Neural control of cursor trajectory and click by a human with tetraplegia 1000 days after implant of an intracortical microelectrode array. J. Neural Eng. 8, 025027 (2011). source
The Methods section (2.2) places the study sessions on implant days 999–1003. The Discussion (4.1) reports successful point-and-click control on day 1003, supporting retained array functionality beyond 1000 days. The parenthetical “including here” refers to the citing authors’ own study, not a finding attributed to this source. (LLM, conf=0.94)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [38] Bullard, A. J., Hutchison, B. C., Lee, J., Chestek, C. A. & Patil, P. G. Estimating risk for future intracranial, fully implanted, modular neuroprosthetic systems: a systematic review of hardware complications in clinical deep brain stimulation and experimental human intracortical arrays. Neuromodulation 23, 411–426 (2020). source
boostedSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“and has enabled the highest BCI performance to date compared to other recording technologies (EEG, ECoG) for restoring communication7, arm control2,5, and general-purpose computer use39.”
§ High-performance brain-to-text communication via handwriting > Discussion
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [7] Pandarinath, C. et al. High performance communication by people with paralysis using an intracortical brain–computer interface. eLife 6, e18554 (2017). source
Citation 7 is attached to restoring communication, not to arm control or general-purpose computer use, which have separate citations. In the Results (Table 1; page unavailable), the paper compares its intracortical communication BCI with prior systems, including EEG systems, and states that it outperforms all previous BCIs tested with people with motor impairment. (LLM, conf=0.90)
- Supportedcites [2] Collinger, J. L. et al. High-performance neuroprosthetic control by an individual with tetraplegia. Lancet 381, 557–564 (2013). source
This citation is attached to arm control, not to communication or general-purpose computer use. The Methods (Array implantation; page unavailable) describe intracortical microelectrode arrays, and the Introduction (page unavailable) contrasts this study’s robust seven-dimensional prosthetic-arm control with earlier human studies limited to three-dimensional translation and discrete grasp. That supports the citing sentence’s arm-control comparison. (LLM, conf=0.86)
- Partly supportedcites [5] Ajiboye, A. B. et al. Restoration of reaching and grasping movements through brain-controlled muscle stimulation in a person with tetraplegia: a proof-of-concept demonstration. Lancet 389, 1821–1830 (2017). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Methods describe implanted microelectrode arrays controlling reaching and grasping, and the Discussion says intracortical BCIs offer greater functional performance than non-invasive systems, specifically contrasting robotic-arm control with EEG. The paper does not establish a performance comparison with ECoG. Communication and general-purpose computer use have separate citations in the citing sentence and are not judged against this source. (LLM, conf=0.84)
- Partly supportedcites [39] Nuyujukian, P. et al. Cortical control of a tablet computer by people with paralysis. PLoS One 13, e0204566 (2018). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Introduction (page unavailable) says prior EEG and ECoG work had not shown general control of a computing device such as a commercial tablet. The Abstract and Conclusion (pages unavailable) report high-performance control of an unmodified general-purpose tablet using implanted arrays. The paper does not establish that this achieved the highest BCI performance relative to EEG or ECoG; the separate communication and arm-control claims carry other citations in the citing sentence. (LLM, conf=0.84)
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We found that when only 2–7 days passed between sessions, performance was reasonable with no decoder retraining (11.1% raw error rate, 1.5% with a language model)”
§ High-performance brain-to-text communication via handwriting > Daily decoder retraining
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Importantly, typing rates were high, plateauing at 90 characters per minute with a 5.4% character error rate (Fig. 2c, average of red circles).”
§ High-performance brain-to-text communication via handwriting > Decoding handwritten sentences
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 20
- Probably not a substantial claim. 8
At least one cited source doesn’t support this claim or points to a different paper, and none confirmed it — see the verdicts below.
In the paper
“which is comparable to state-of-the-art speech recognition systems (e.g. word error rates of 4–5% 14,15), putting it well within the range of usability.”
§ High-performance brain-to-text communication via handwriting > Decoding handwritten sentences
What the sources say
- Disputedcites [14] Xiong, W. et al. The Microsoft 2017 Conversational Speech Recognition System. Preprint at https://arxiv.org/abs/1708.06073 (2017). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Conclusions (p. 4) identify 6.2% as the state-of-the-art word error rate on the Switchboard test data, not 4–5%. The paper does not assess whether an error rate is usable; the citing sentence presents usability as its own inference. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [15] He, Y. et al. Streaming end-to-end speech recognition for mobile devices. In 2019 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing 6381–6385 (2019). source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Disputed
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Prior BCI studies have shown that the motor intention for gross motor skills, such as reaching, grasping or moving a computer cursor, remains neurally encoded in motor cortex after paralysis1–7.”
§ High-performance brain-to-text communication via handwriting > Neural representation of handwriting
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [1] Hochberg, L. R. et al. Reach and grasp by people with tetraplegia using a neurally controlled robotic arm. Nature 485, 372–375 (2012). source
The Abstract reports that people with longstanding tetraplegia previously used neural signals to move and click a computer cursor. It also reports that two participants used motor-cortex activity generated by intended arm and hand movements to reach and grasp with a robotic arm, supporting the claim that these intentions remain neurally encoded after paralysis. (LLM, conf=0.91)
- Supportedcites [2] Collinger, J. L. et al. High-performance neuroprosthetic control by an individual with tetraplegia. Lancet 381, 557–564 (2013). source
The Methods describe intracortical electrodes implanted in the motor cortex of a person with tetraplegia, and the Introduction reports neural control of reaching and grasping. The Discussion also reports earlier human intracortical studies controlling computer cursors. The copy provides section labels but no page numbers. (LLM, conf=0.91)
- Partly supportedcites [3] Aflalo, T. et al. Neurophysiology. Decoding motor imagery from the posterior parietal cortex of a tetraplegic human. Science 348, 906–910 (2015). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The passage comparing this study with previous human M1 recordings (indexed section labeled Abstract; page unavailable) reports that those studies decoded movement trajectories, supporting the motor-cortex portion in part. This paper’s own recordings of imagined reaching, grasping, and cursor control were from the posterior parietal cortex of a tetraplegic participant, not motor cortex. It does not establish that the earlier motor-cortex studies demonstrated all three movements named in the claim. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [4] Bouton, C. E. et al. Restoring cortical control of functional movement in a human with quadriplegia. Nature 533, 247–250 (2016). source
- Supportedcites [5] Ajiboye, A. B. et al. Restoration of reaching and grasping movements through brain-controlled muscle stimulation in a person with tetraplegia: a proof-of-concept demonstration. Lancet 389, 1821–1830 (2017). source
The Introduction reports that people with paralysis had used intracortical BCIs to control cursors and robotic reaching and grasping. The Methods locate the arrays in motor cortex, and the Results report neural activity strongly related to intended movements in the participant with tetraplegia. Together, these passages support the claim that movement intentions remain neurally encoded after paralysis. (LLM, conf=0.90)
- Supportedcites [6] Jarosiewicz, B. et al. Virtual typing by people with tetraplegia using a self-calibrating intracortical brain–computer interface. Sci. Transl. Med. 7, 313ra179 (2015). source
The Introduction reports that people with tetraplegia have controlled cursors and robotic arms through intracortical BCIs by imagining arm movement. The Results locate the recorded neural signals in the hand/arm area of motor cortex, and the References identify an earlier study of neurally controlled reaching and grasping by people with tetraplegia. No page numbers are available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Partly supportedcites [7] Pandarinath, C. et al. High performance communication by people with paralysis using an intracortical brain–computer interface. eLife 6, e18554 (2017). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion (page unavailable) reports that people with no limb movement controlled a cursor using an intracortical BCI, and that monkeys given a paralytic agent retained grasp-related cortical activity. Our copy does not establish the claimed post-paralysis encoding of intended reaching; its mention of reaching is in a reference title about primates. (LLM, conf=0.82)
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“as might be expected from prior work showing short-term stability of neural recordings19–21.”
§ High-performance brain-to-text communication via handwriting > Daily decoder retraining
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [19] Dickey, A. S., Suminski, A., Amit, Y. & Hatsopoulos, N. G. Single-unit stability using chronically implanted multielectrode arrays. J. Neurophysiol. 102, 1331–1339 (2009). source
The Abstract reports that 57% of the original units remained stable through 7 days, and the Discussion concludes that a subset of neurons remained stable for days to weeks. This supports the cited point about short-term stability of neural recordings; the finding concerns a subset of recorded units, not every unit. Page numbers were not provided in the supplied passages. (LLM, conf=0.93)
- Supportedcites [20] Eleryan, A. et al. Tracking single units in chronic, large scale, neural recordings for brain machine interface applications. Front. Neuroeng. 7, 23 (2014). source
The Discussion reports stable single units across recording days and describes this paper’s method for tracking them using 15-minute recordings. That supports the broad claim of short-term stability, though the paper also notes that neural signals can fluctuate and not every unit remains stable. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.84)
- Supportedcites [21] Downey, J. E., Schwed, N., Chase, S. M., Schwartz, A. B. & Collinger, J. L. Intracortical recording stability in human brain–computer interface users. J. Neural Eng. 15, 046016 (2018). source
The Results section, “Most units are stable for hours,” reports that 72%–80% of recorded units remained stable across recordings one hour apart in both subjects. This supports the cited claim of short-term stability without implying that every recording was stable. (LLM, conf=0.94)
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“More generally, using the principle of maximizing the nearest neighbor distance between movements, it should be possible to optimize a set of movements for ease of classification26.”
§ High-performance brain-to-text communication via handwriting > Temporal variety improves decoding
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [26] Cunningham, J. P., Yu, B. M., Gilja, V., Ryu, S. I. & Shenoy, K. V. Toward optimal target placement for neural prosthetic devices. J. Neurophysiol. 100, 3445–3457 (2008). source
The Methods section states that the least distinguishable pair of reach targets has the smallest KL divergence and that maximizing this minimum divergence reduces decoding error. This supports optimizing a set of movements for easier classification; the relevant distance is between their neural-response distributions, not necessarily their physical positions. (LLM, conf=0.88)
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Variability in performance across participants is also a potential concern (in a prior study, T5 achieved the highest performance of 3 participants7).”
§ High-performance brain-to-text communication via handwriting > Discussion
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [7] Pandarinath, C. et al. High performance communication by people with paralysis using an intracortical brain–computer interface. eLife 6, e18554 (2017). source
The Results report performance for all three participants: T5 had the highest average grid-task bitrate (3.7 bps, versus 2.2 for T6 and 1.4 for T7). The Results also show T5 had the highest reported average typing rate, while the Discussion explicitly notes variation in communication rates across participants. (LLM, conf=0.94)
hedgedn = 3- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Recently, speech-decoding BCIs have shown exciting promise for restoring rapid communication (e.g. 34,16,17), but their accuracies and vocabulary sizes require further improvement to support general-purpose use.”
§ High-performance brain-to-text communication via handwriting > Discussion
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [34] Mugler, E. M. et al. Direct classification of all American English phonemes using signals from functional speech motor cortex. J. Neural Eng. 11, 035015 (2014). source
The Abstract reports word identification equivalent to as much as 33.6 words per minute, supporting the promise of speech-based BCI communication. The Discussion says word identification was only 18.8% and was not sufficient for communication, while describing broader word decoding as a future step. Together, these support the claim that accuracy and vocabulary coverage need improvement for general-purpose use. (LLM, conf=0.91)
- Supportedcites [16] Anumanchipalli, G. K., Chartier, J. & Chang, E. F. Speech synthesis from neural decoding of spoken sentences. Nature 568, 493–498 (2019). source
The Abstract and Discussion describe neural speech synthesis as a promising route to communication at a natural speaking rate. Synthesis performance reports testing with only 25- or 50-word choice pools and median word error rates of 31% and 53%, respectively. Those limits support the claim that accuracy and vocabulary would need improvement for general-purpose use. (LLM, conf=0.85)
- Supportedcites [17] Makin, J. G., Moses, D. A. & Chang, E. F. Machine translation of cortical activity to text with an encoder-decoder framework. Nat. Neurosci. 23, 575–582 (2020). source
The Abstract reports decoding at natural-speech rates with word error rates as low as 3%. The Discussion qualifies that result: testing was limited to 30–50 sentences and a 250-word vocabulary, and it remains unknown how much data would be needed to extend the approach to general English. Page numbers were not provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“EEG spellers that use visually evoked potentials have achieved speeds of 60 characters per minute 18, but have important usability limitations, as they tie up the eyes, are not typically self-paced, and require panels of flashing lights on a screen.”
§ High-performance brain-to-text communication via handwriting > Discussion
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [18] Chen, X. et al. High-speed spelling with a noninvasive brain–computer interface. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 112, E6058–E6067 (2015). source
The citation is attached to the 60-characters-per-minute figure. The Results report that this EEG-based SSVEP speller achieved that rate; the subsequent usability characterization is not the part directly attributed to this source. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Intracortical BCIs based on 2D cursor movements give the user more freedom to look around and set their own pace of communication, but have yet to exceed 40 correct characters per minute in people7.”
§ High-performance brain-to-text communication via handwriting > Discussion
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [7] Pandarinath, C. et al. High performance communication by people with paralysis using an intracortical brain–computer interface. eLife 6, e18554 (2017). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Introduction describes continuous two-dimensional cursor control, and the Discussion describes the point-and-click interface as flexible. The Results report average copy-typing rates up to 39.2 correct characters per minute, but do not establish that no individual typing rate exceeded 40. The cited passages also do not establish the specific claim that users can look around while communicating. (LLM, conf=0.84)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The neural activity appeared to be strong and repeatable, although the timing of its peaks and valleys varied across trials, potentially due to fluctuations in writing speed.”
§ High-performance brain-to-text communication via handwriting > Neural representation of handwriting
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We assessed the stability of the neural patterns associated with each character and found high short-term stability (mean correlation = 0.85 when 7 days apart or less), and neural changes that seemed to accumulate at a steady and predictable rate (Extended Data Fig. 4).”
§ High-performance brain-to-text communication via handwriting > Daily decoder retraining
hedgedcorrelationalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Accuracy was extremely high in this regime (0.17% character error rate), indicating a high potential ceiling of performance, although this decoder would not be able to provide letter-by-letter feedback to the user.”
§ High-performance brain-to-text communication via handwriting > Decoding handwritten sentences
hedgedcorrelationalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Readily recognizable letter shapes confirm that pen tip velocity is robustly encoded.”
§ High-performance brain-to-text communication via handwriting > Neural representation of handwriting
boostedcorrelationalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We found that spatial dimensionality was only modestly larger for characters (1.24 times larger; 95% CI = [1.19, 1.30]), but that the temporal dimensionality was much greater (2.65 times larger; 95% CI = [2.58, 2.72])”
§ High-performance brain-to-text communication via handwriting > Temporal variety improves decoding
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The character error rate fell to 0.89% and the word error rate fell to 3.4% averaged across all days”
§ High-performance brain-to-text communication via handwriting > Decoding handwritten sentences
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The t-SNE visualization revealed tight clusters of neural activity for each character and a predominantly motoric encoding where characters that are written similarly are closer together.”
§ High-performance brain-to-text communication via handwriting > Neural representation of handwriting
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“T5 has a high-level spinal cord injury (C4 AIS C) and was paralyzed from the neck down; his hand movements were entirely non-functional and limited to twitching and micromotion.”
§ High-performance brain-to-text communication via handwriting > Neural representation of handwriting
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Simply by allowing the trajectories to change in time (Fig. 4g), the nearest neighbor distance between the neural trajectories can be increased, resulting in an increase in classification accuracy when noise levels are large enough (Fig. 4h).”
§ High-performance brain-to-text communication via handwriting > Temporal variety improves decoding
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The results confirm that high performance can also be achieved when the user writes self-generated sentences as opposed to copying on-screen prompts (73.8 characters per minute with an 8.54% character error rate in real-time, 2.25% with a language model).”
§ High-performance brain-to-text communication via handwriting > Decoding handwritten sentences
boostedSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We found that 10 sentences (8.7 minutes) were enough to achieve a raw error rate of 8.5% (1.7% with a language model), although 30 sentences were needed to match the raw online error rate of 5.9%.”
§ High-performance brain-to-text communication via handwriting > Daily decoder retraining
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We think this is one, but not necessarily the only, important factor that enabled a handwriting BCI to go faster than continuous-motion point-and-click BCIs.”
§ High-performance brain-to-text communication via handwriting > Temporal variety improves decoding
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Retraining helps account for changes in neural recordings that accrue over time, which might be caused by neural plasticity or electrode array micromotion.”
§ High-performance brain-to-text communication via handwriting > Daily decoder retraining
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Other discrete (classification-based) BCIs have also typically used directional movements with little temporal variety, which may have limited their accuracy and/or the size of the movement set24,25.”
§ High-performance brain-to-text communication via handwriting > Temporal variety improves decoding
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [24] Musallam, S., Corneil, B. D., Greger, B., Scherberger, H. & Andersen, R. A. Cognitive control signals for neural prosthetics. Science 305, 258–262 (2004). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [25] Santhanam, G., Ryu, S. I., Yu, B. M., Afshar, A. & Shenoy, K. V. A high-performance brain–computer interface. Nature 442, 195–198 (2006). source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The demonstrated real-time system is general (the user can express any sentence), easy to use (entirely self-paced and the eyes are free to move), and accurate enough to be useful in the real-world (94.1% raw accuracy, and >99% accuracy offline with a large-vocabulary language model).”
§ High-performance brain-to-text communication via handwriting > Discussion
boostedSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These methods could be applied more generally to any sequential behavior that cannot be observed directly (e.g., decoding speech from someone who can no longer speak).”
§ High-performance brain-to-text communication via handwriting > Discussion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“More broadly, intracortical microelectrode array technology is still maturing, and requires further demonstrations of longevity, safety, and efficacy before widespread clinical adoption35,36.”
§ High-performance brain-to-text communication via handwriting > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [35] Nurmikko, A. Challenges for large-scale cortical interfaces. Neuron 108, 259–269 (2020). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [36] Vázquez-Guardado, A., Yang, Y., Bandodkar, A. J. & Rogers, J. A. Recent advances in neurotechnologies with broad potential for neuroscience research. Nat. Neurosci. 23, 1522–1536 (2020). source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Finally, it is important to recognize that the current system is a proof-of-concept that a high-performance handwriting BCI is possible (in a single participant); it is not yet a complete, clinically viable system.”
§ High-performance brain-to-text communication via handwriting > Discussion
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The authors state this as an assumption.
It was not yet known whether the neural representation for a rapid, highly dexterous skill such as handwriting remains intact after paralysis.
“However, it is still unknown whether the neural representation for a rapid and highly-dexterous motor skill, such as handwriting, also remains intact.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source doesn’t support the claim as written.
In the citing paper
“which is 3.4 times as fast as the previous record8”
From A high-performance speech neuroprosthesis (2023) · cites this paper as [8]
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“During 14 days of data collection shortly after device implantation, we achieved high-performance text decoding, exceeding communication speeds of previous BCIs by a factor of 4 or more1,3,9”
From A high-performance neuroprosthesis for speech decoding and avatar control (2023) · cites this paper as [9]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“A second approach, specific to text decoding, involves leveraging large language models to automatically recalibrate MEA-based text neuroprostheses.”
From The speech neuroprosthesis (2024) · cites this paper as [9]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“A similar tradeoff can be facilitated by having a spelling framework available on the neuroprosthesis, either using attempted speech120 or handwriting9, which would allow users to spell out arbitrary sentences with high accuracy (albeit with substantially lower speeds).”
From The speech neuroprosthesis (2024) · cites this paper as [9]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“This decoding rate exceeds our participant’s typical communication rate using her assistive device (14.2 WPM; Supplementary Note 2) and is closer to naturalistic speaking rates than has been previously reported with communication neuroprostheses1,3,7–9.”
From A high-performance neuroprosthesis for speech decoding and avatar control (2023) · cites this paper as [9]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“In this approach, MEA activity is decoded into subword units and converted into sentences using language models; this language model output is used as a ‘pseudo-label’ to update the RNN decoding model9,16,105.”
From The speech neuroprosthesis (2024) · cites this paper as [9]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“MEA-based decoders, including text decoders9,15, have traditionally required day-to-day recalibration owing to signal instabilities and drift, requiring additional dedicated time from the user.”
From The speech neuroprosthesis (2024) · cites this paper as [9]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“and several studies indicate that UEAs retain their functionality in humans for more than 1000 days (29, 31).”
From Visual percepts evoked with an intracortical 96-channel microelectrode array inserted in human occipital cortex (2021) · cites this paper as [29]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Although the duration of this study was limited to 6 months, UEAs have been successfully implanted in human subjects in numerous studies (25-29) and these devices have continued to work for many years.”
From Visual percepts evoked with an intracortical 96-channel microelectrode array inserted in human occipital cortex (2021) · cites this paper as [29]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Recently, BCIs based on hand movement activity have enabled typing speeds of between eight and 18 words per minute in people with paralysis8,29.”
From A high-performance speech neuroprosthesis (2023) · cites this paper as [8]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Neurotechnologies can decode and project very specific and often rudimentary forms of thought, such as imagined handwriting, 40 typing, 27 and other kinds of intended and directed movements. 28”
From AI and Neurotechnology (2023) · cites this paper as [40]
Citations
Cites
Adam: A Method for Stochastic Optimization
Kingma, D. P., & Ba, J. (2014) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1412.6980 · Cited by 98,946 · cited 3×
“We used the gradient descent method “Adam” (Kingma and Ba, 2017) (beta1 = 0.”
Method(2008) · Journal of Machine Learning Research · Cited by 33,051
Learning Phrase Representations using RNN Encoder–Decoder for Statistical Machine Translation
Cho, K., van Merrienboer, B., Gulcehre, C., Bahdanau, D., Bougares, F., Schwenk, H., & Bengio, Y. (2014) · Proceedings of the 2014 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP) · doi:10.3115/v1/d14-1179 · Cited by 25,545 · cited 1×
“We used a two layer, gated recurrent unit RNN (Cho et al., 2014) to convert T5’s neural activity into a time series of character probabilities (see Extended Data Fig.”
MethodHinton, G., Deng, L., Yu, D., Dahl, G., Mohamed, A.-R., Jaitly, N., Senior, A., Vanhoucke, V., Nguyen, P., Sainath, T., et al. (2012) · IEEE Signal Processing Magazine · doi:10.1109/msp.2012.2205597 · Cited by 10,260
TensorFlow: Large-Scale Machine Learning on Heterogeneous Distributed Systems
Abadi, M., Agarwal, A., Barham, P., Brevdo, E., Chen, Z., Citro, C., Corrado, G. S., Davis, A., Dean, J., Devin, M., et al. (2016) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1603.04467 · Cited by 9,408 · cited 2×
“We used the “Adam” gradient descent method (Abadi et al., 2016; Kingma and Ba, 2017).”
MethodSpeech recognition with deep recurrent neural networks
Graves, A., Mohamed, A.-R., & Hinton, G. (2013) · 2013 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing · doi:10.1109/icassp.2013.6638947 · Cited by 8,893 · cited 1×
“Our methods are similar to neural network methods used in automatic speech recognition (Hinton et al., 2012; Graves et al., 2013; Zeyer et al., 2017; Xiong et al., 2017), but with some key changes made to achieve high performance on neural activity in a highly data-limited regime (1-10 hours of data, as opposed to 1,0…”
Method“Librispeech: an ASR corpus based on public domain audio books,”
Panayotov, V., Chen, G., Povey, D., & Khudanpur, S. (2015) · 2015 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing (ICASSP) · doi:10.1109/icassp.2015.7178964 · Cited by 6,072 · cited 1×
“, 2017), but with some key changes made to achieve high performance on neural activity in a highly data-limited regime (1-10 hours of data, as opposed to 1,000+ hours (Cieri et al., 2004; Panayotov et al., 2015; He et al., 2019)).”
BackgroundGraves, A., Fernández, S., Gomez, F., & Schmidhuber, J. (2006) · Proceedings of the 23rd international conference on Machine learning - ICML '06 · doi:10.1145/1143844.1143891 · Cited by 5,370
Kaldi Speech Recognition Toolkit
Povey, D. (2024) · Infoscience (Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne) · doi:10.57702/jb3fvbn9 · Cited by 5,270
Neuronal ensemble control of prosthetic devices by a human with tetraplegia
Hochberg, L. R., Serruya, M. D., Friehs, G. M., Mukand, J. A., Saleh, M., Caplan, A. H., Branner, A., Chen, D., Penn, R. D., & Donoghue, J. P. (2006) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature04970 · Cited by 3,295
Self-citation
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 201–300 of 967
Flexible, ultrathin bioelectronic materials and devices for chronically stable neural interfaces
Zhou, L., Wu, Z., Sun, M., Park, J., Han, M., Wang, M., Yu, J., Di, Z., Mei, Y., Bai, W., et al. (2023) · Brain‐X · doi:10.1002/brx2.47 · Cited by 22
NSF DARE—transforming modeling in neurorehabilitation: a patient-in-the-loop framework
Cashaback, J. G. A., Allen, J. L., Chou, A. H. Y., Lin, D. J., Price, M. A., Katic, N., Song, S., Zhang, H., & Miller, H. L. (2024) · Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1186/s12984-024-01318-9 · Cited by 21
“Many promising results have been reported in neurorehabilitation, such as decoding communication for paralyzed people with tetraplegia and anarthria [168] as well as spinal cord injury [169].”
BackgroundEmerging Medical Technologies and Their Use in Bionic Repair and Human Augmentation
Manero, A. C., Rivera, V., Fu, Q., Schwartzman, J. D., Gibbs, H. P., Shah, N., Gandhi, D. A., White, E., Crawford, K. E., & Coathup, M. J. (2024) · Bioengineering · doi:10.3390/bioengineering11070695 · Cited by 24
“Herein, a patient paralyzed due to a spinal cord injury was able to use an intra-cortically implanted system to produce a typing speed of 90 characters per minute with greater than 94% accuracy via an imagined handwriting movement [40].”
MethodA brain-to-text framework for decoding natural tonal sentences
Zhang, D., Wang, Z., Qian, Y., Zhao, Z., Liu, Y., Hao, X., Li, W., Lu, S., Zhu, H., Chen, L., et al. (2024) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2024.114924 · Cited by 25
The Argo: A 65,536 channel recording system for high density neural recording in vivoPreprint
Sahasrabuddhe, K., Khan, A. A., Singh, A., Stern, T. M., Ng, Y., Tadić, A., Orel, P., LaReau, C., Pouzzner, D., Nishimura, K. A., et al. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.07.17.209403 · Cited by 20
Fan, C., Hahn, N., Kamdar, F., Avansino, D., Wilson, G. H., Hochberg, L., Shenoy, K. V., Henderson, J. M., & Willett, F. R. (2023) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2311.03611 · Cited by 19
“In [47], the author reported a 1.5% character error rate when evaluating a pretrained decoder on a new day that is less than a week away.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationA 2.46-mm2 Miniaturized Brain-Machine Interface (MiBMI) Enabling 31-Class Brain-to-Text Decoding
Shaeri, M., Shin, U., Yadav, A., Caramellino, R., Rainer, G., & Shoaran, M. (2024) · IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits · doi:10.1109/jssc.2024.3443254 · Cited by 19
“The MUA can be derived using a simple threshold crossing method [6], [8], capturing a mixture of multiple neuronal spikes recorded from an ensemble of neurons.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialValue of artificial intelligence in neuro-oncology
Voigtlaender, S., Nelson, T. A., Karschnia, P., Vaios, E., Kim, M. M., Lohmann, P., Galldiks, N., Filbin, M. G., Azizi, S., Natarajan, V., et al. (2025) · The Lancet Digital Health · doi:10.1016/j.landig.2025.100876 · Cited by 27
Brain–Computer Interface—A Brain-in-the-Loop Communication System
Gao, X., Wang, Y., Chen, X., Liu, B., & Gao, S. (2025) · Proceedings of the IEEE · doi:10.1109/jproc.2025.3600389 · Cited by 24
“This requires converting the specific semantic concepts a user is focusing on or thinking about into a unique brain signal and decoding it at the receiver [333], [334], [335].”
Matsui, T., Taki, M., Pham, T. Q., Chikazoe, J., & Jimura, K. (2022) · Frontiers in Neuroinformatics · doi:10.3389/fninf.2021.802938 · Cited by 21
Shaeri, M., & Sodagar, A. M. (2022) · IEEE Reviews in Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1109/rbme.2022.3151340 · Cited by 18
“In addition to the three aforementioned applications, mathematical transformations ( e.g. , wavelets) are employed for feature extraction in neural decoding [118], [119], data visualization [9], and also for the extraction of analog signals [43].”
BackgroundVansteensel, M. J., Branco, M. P., Leinders, S., Freudenburg, Z. V., Schippers, A., Geukes, S. H., Gaytant, M. A., Gosselaar, P. H., Aarnoutse, E. J., & Ramsey, N. F. (2022) · Neurorehabilitation and neural repair · doi:10.1177/15459683221125788 · Cited by 21
Conformable neural interface based on off-stoichiometry thiol-ene-epoxy thermosets
Borda, E., Medagoda, D. I., Leccardi, M. J. I. A., Zollinger, E. G., & Ghezzi, D. (2022) · Biomaterials · doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2022.121979 · Cited by 20
Neuronal Spiking Responses to Direct Electrical Microstimulation in the Human Cortex
Youssef, D., Wittig, J. H., Jackson, S. N., Inati, S. K., & Zaghloul, K. A. (2023) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.1666-22.2023 · Cited by 17
A Gelatin-Based Hydrogel Electrode With High Moisturizing Ability for Wearable EEG Recording
Shen, G., Zheng, K., Jiang, C., et al. (2023) · IEEE Sensors Journal · doi:10.1109/jsen.2023.3317538 · Cited by 19
“W ITH the progress of science and technology, the field of human–computer interaction has received wide attention from academia and industry [1], [2].”
BackgroundUnveiling Thoughts: A Review of Advancements in EEG Brain Signal Decoding Into Text
Murad, S. A., & Rahimi, N. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Cognitive and Developmental Systems · doi:10.1109/tcds.2024.3462452 · Cited by 27
“In recent years, there has been a significant increase in research focused on decoding EEG signals for the purpose of direct brain-to-text communication [1].”
Merk, T., Köhler, R. M., Peterson, V., et al. (2023) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3212709/v1 · Cited by 19
An accurate and rapidly calibrating speech neuroprosthesis
Card, N. S., Wairagkar, M., Iacobacci, C., Hou, X., Singer-Clark, T., Willett, F. R., Kunz, E. M., Fan, C., Vahdati Nia, M., Deo, D. R., et al. (2023) · doi:10.1101/2023.12.26.23300110 · Cited by 244
Self-citationThe neural basis of mental navigation in rats
Coulter, M. E., & Kemere, C. T. (2023) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.adl0806 · Cited by 19
The Future of Biohybrid Regenerative Bioelectronics
Carnicer‐Lombarte, A., Malliaras, G. G., & Barone, D. G. (2024) · Advanced Materials · doi:10.1002/adma.202408308 · Cited by 20
Online recognition of handwritten characters from scalp-recorded brain activities during handwriting
Pei, L., & Ouyang, G. (2021) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ac01a0 · Cited by 19
“In addition, it has also been demonstrated that the ECoG signals during handwriting imagery can be decoded and used for typing purpose with a high performance (Willett et al 2021).”
Prospects for cardiovascular medicine using artificial intelligence
Kodera, S., Akazawa, H., Morita, H., & Komuro, I. (2021) · Journal of Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.jjcc.2021.10.016 · Cited by 21
Attention-Based CNN Capturing EEG Recording’s Average Voltage and Local Change
Yi, L., & Qu, X. (2022) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-05643-7_29 · Cited by 18
Cajigas, I., Davis, K., Prins, N. W., Gallo, S., Naeem, J., Fisher, L., Ivan, M. E., Prasad, A., & Jagid, J. R. (2023) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2022.1077416 · Cited by 18
“, 2017) to control of motor intent-totext systems for improved communication (Willett et al., 2021).”
BackgroundEfficient in Vivo Neural Signal Compression Using an Autoencoder-Based Neural Network
Valencia, D., Mercier, P. P., & Alimohammad, A. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2024.3359994 · Cited by 19
“The application of novel machine learning (ML)-based decoding algorithms has enabled increasingly complex BCI applications, such as thought-to-text [6] and thought-to-speech synthesis [7].”
BackgroundChallenges and Opportunities of Edge AI for Next-Generation Implantable BMIs
Shaeri, M., Afzal, A., & Shoaran, M. (2022) · IEEE International Conference on Artificial Intelligence Circuits and Systems (AICAS) · doi:10.1109/aicas54282.2022.9870008 · Cited by 19
“Prosthetic BMIs allow subjects to perform daily tasks such as movement [1] or typing [2].”
Qiu, Y., Liu, H., & Zhao, M. (2025) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app15010392 · Cited by 22
Artificial Intelligence in Science and Society: The Vision of USERN
Dorigo, T., Brown, G. D., Casonato, C., Cerdà, A., Ciarrochi, J., Lio, M. D., D’Souza, N., Gauger, N. R., Hayes, S. C., Hofmann, S. G., et al. (2025) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2025.3529357 · Cited by 21
Cooney, C., Folli, R., & Coyle, D. (2022) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104783 · Cited by 16
“, imagined handwriting (Willett et al., 2021) or imagination of letter shapes (Ullah and Halim, 2021)); (4) The article was a review paper, a book chapter, presentation, or a preprint; (5) The paper did not have a full article (e.”
BackgroundMeta-Learning for Fast and Privacy-Preserving Source Knowledge Transfer of EEG-Based BCIs
Li, S., Wu, H., Ding, L., & Wu, D. (2022) · IEEE Computational Intelligence Magazine · doi:10.1109/mci.2022.3199622 · Cited by 17
“As in [27], the data were band-pass filtered to 8-35 Hz, and each trial was epoched to [5, 8] second.”
BackgroundMethodHosman, T., Pun, T. K., Kapitonava, A., Simeral, J. D., & Hochberg, L. R. (2023) · International IEEE/EMBS Conference on Neural Engineering · doi:10.1109/ner52421.2023.10123740 · Cited by 19
Self-citationGao, L., Lv, S., Shang, Y., Guan, S., Tian, H., Fang, Y. Z., Wang, J., & Li, H. (2023) · Nano Letters · doi:10.1021/acs.nanolett.3c03421 · Cited by 15
Xu, Q., Xi, Y., Wang, L., Du, Z., Xu, M., Ruan, T., Cao, J., Zheng, K., Wang, X., Yang, B. T., et al. (2024) · ACS Nano · doi:10.1021/acsnano.4c07379 · Cited by 19
Volitional control of individual neurons in the human brain
Patel, K., Katz, C. N., Kalia, S. K., Popović, M. R., & Valiante, T. A. (2021) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awab370 · Cited by 20
In vivo neural spike detection with adaptive noise estimation
Valencia, D., Mercier, P. P., & Alimohammad, A. (2022) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ac8077 · Cited by 19
“For the first analysis, we employed a relatively-low order a fourth order Elliptical IIR filter is employed, following conventional low-order filtering methods in BMI systems [15, 16].”
MethodApplying the IEEE BRAIN neuroethics framework to intra-cortical brain-computer interfaces
Soldado-Magraner, J., Antonietti, A., French, J., Higgins, N., Young, M. J., Larrivee, D., & Monteleone, R. (2024) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ad3852 · Cited by 16
BELT: Bootstrapped EEG-to-Language Training by Natural Language Supervision
Zhou, J., Duan, Y., Chang, Y., Wang, Y., & Lin, C. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering · doi:10.1109/tnsre.2024.3450795 · Cited by 22
“Existing research on brain-to-language decoding includes both invasive [18], [19] as well as noninvasive approaches [6], [20], [21].”
BackgroundEEG2Text: Open Vocabulary EEG-to-Text Translation with Multi-View Transformer
Liu, H., Hajialigol, D., Antony, B., Han, A., & Wang, X. (2024) · IEEE International Conference on Big Data (BigData) · doi:10.1109/bigdata62323.2024.10825980 · Cited by 55
Workshops of the eighth international brain–computer interface meeting: BCIs: the next frontier
Huggins, J. E., Krusienski, D. J., Vansteensel, M. J., Valeriani, D., Thelen, A., Stavisky, S. D., Norton, J. J. S., Nijholt, A., Müller-Putz, G., Kosmyna, N., et al. (2022) · Brain-Computer Interfaces · doi:10.1080/2326263x.2021.2009654 · Cited by 18
The brain-reading devices helping paralysed people to move, talk and touch
Drew, L. (2022) · Nature · doi:10.1038/d41586-022-01047-w · Cited by 19
Calibration-Free and Hardware-Efficient Neural Spike Detection for Brain Machine Interfaces
Zhang, Z., Feng, P., Oprea, A., & Constandinou, T. G. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2023.3278531 · Cited by 20
SCALO: An Accelerator-Rich Distributed System for Scalable Brain-Computer Interfacing
Sriram, K., Pothukuchi, R. P., Gerasimiuk, M., Ugur, M., Ye, O., Manohar, R., Khandelwal, A., & Bhattacharjee, A. (2023) · Proceedings - International Symposium on Computer Architecture/Proceedings · doi:10.1145/3579371.3589107 · Cited by 14
“limbs [4, 20, 94, 124, 153, 167], cursors on computer screens [35, 92, 93, 157], or prostheses that translate brain signals corresponding to intended speech into text on computer screens [50, 99, 159, 162].”
BackgroundNext-Generation Closed-Loop Neural Interfaces: Circuit and AI-driven innovations
Shoaran, M. (2023) · IEEE Solid-State Circuits Magazine · doi:10.1109/mssc.2023.3309782 · Cited by 17
“…decoders, particularly those utilizing modern machine learning (ML), for reliable decoding of brain states in movement disorders [25], [28], epilepsy [29], [30], [31], [32], depression [24], migraine [26], and memory [22], as well as enhanced motor decoding for BCI [23], [33], [34], [35].”
BackgroundUsing large language models to accelerate communication for eye gaze typing users with ALS
Cai, S., Venugopalan, S., Seaver, K., Xiao, X., Tomanek, K., Jalasutram, S., Morris, M. R., Kane, S. K., Narayanan, A., MacDonald, R. L., et al. (2024) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-024-53873-3 · Cited by 41
“Similarly, BCI-based text entry, including techniques based on motor imagery from surgical implants 11,39 and the non-invasive techniques based on visual evoked potentials 14 could bene fi t from the same greater predictive power of LLMs.”
RETRACTED: Decoding thoughts, encoding ethics: A narrative review of the BCI-AI revolution
Rudroff, T. (2024) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2024.149423 · Cited by 18
“The system developed by Willett et al. (2021) demonstrates a breakthrough in this domain, enabling typing through imagined handwriting movements.”
InfluentialRetractedPreserved cortical somatotopic and motor representations in tetraplegic humans
Andersen, R. A., & Aflalo, T. (2022) · Current Opinion in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.conb.2022.102547 · Cited by 17
Invariant neural dynamics drive commands to control different movements
Athalye, V. R., Khanna, P., Gowda, S., Orsborn, A. L., Costa, R. M., & Carmena, J. M. (2023) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2023.06.027 · Cited by 22
Ahmed, B., Khan, S., Lim, H., & Ku, J. H. (2025) · Electronics · doi:10.3390/electronics14030491 · Cited by 18
Sensing local field potentials with a directional and scalable depth electrode array
Abrego, A. M., Khan, W., Wright, C. E., Islam, M. R., Ghajar, M. H., Bai, X., Tandon, N., & Seymour, J. P. (2023) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/acb230 · Cited by 17
Intracortical brain-computer interfaces in primates: a review and outlook
Rouzitalab, A., Boulay, C., Park, J., & Sachs, A. J. (2023) · Biomedical Engineering Letters · doi:10.1007/s13534-023-00286-8 · Cited by 16
A Calibration-Free Hybrid BCI Speller System Based on High-Frequency SSVEP and sEMG
Zhang, R., Dong, G., Li, M., Tang, Z., Chen, X., & Cui, H. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering · doi:10.1109/tnsre.2023.3308779 · Cited by 19
Electrode Development for Epilepsy Diagnosis and Treatment
Paulk, A. C., Salami, P., Zelmann, R., & Cash, S. S. (2023) · Neurosurgery Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.nec.2023.09.003 · Cited by 17
Mind-Controlled Optical Manipulation
Peng, L., Yao, J., Bai, Y., Sun, Y., Zeng, J., Ren, Y., Xie, J., Hu, Z., Zhang, Q., & Yang, Y. (2024) · ACS Photonics · doi:10.1021/acsphotonics.3c01732 · Cited by 17
Right to mental integrity and neurotechnologies: implications of the extended mind thesis
Tesink, V., Douglas, T., Forsberg, L., et al. (2024) · Journal of Medical Ethics · doi:10.1136/jme-2023-109645 · Cited by 15
“35 36 The capacity of technological systems to perform functions traditionally performed by biological systems renders it increasingly plausible for some that the mind can also be partly realised by physical entities external to the brain.”
BackgroundWang, T., Chen, Y., Wang, Y., Lee, S., Lee, Y., & Dong, J. (2024) · Advanced Sensor Research · doi:10.1002/adsr.202400142 · Cited by 17
Dohle, E., Swanson, E., Jovanović, L., Yusuf, S., Thompson, L., Horsfall, H. L., Muirhead, W. R., Bashford, L., & Brannigan, J. (2025) · Advanced Science · doi:10.1002/advs.202501912 · Cited by 28
Neural Decoding of Chinese Sign Language With Machine Learning for Brain–Computer Interfaces
Wang, P., Zhou, Y., Li, Z., Huang, S., & Zhang, D. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering · doi:10.1109/tnsre.2021.3137340 · Cited by 16
Spinal cord bioelectronic interfaces: opportunities in neural recording and clinical challenges
Jiang, L., Woodington, B. J., Carnicer‐Lombarte, A., Malliaras, G. G., & Barone, D. G. (2022) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ac605f · Cited by 14
“The Utah Intracortical Electrode Array [44] is currently the only BMI approved by theUnited States Food andDrugAdministration (FDA), allowing the control of a robotic arm using cortical signals [45] aswell as high-performance brain-to-text communication [46] with demonstration of chronic interfacing at over 5 years [4…”
BackgroundA Survey of Multi-Agent Cross Domain Cooperative Perception
Zhu, Z., Du, Q., Wang, Z., & Li, G. (2022) · Electronics · doi:10.3390/electronics11071091 · Cited by 15
Neurorestoratology: New Advances in Clinical Therapy
Huang, H., Sharma, H. S., Chen, L., & Chen, D. (2022) · CNS & Neurological Disorders - Drug Targets · doi:10.2174/1871527321666220827093805 · Cited by 14
Guo, Y., Liu, T., Zhang, X., Wang, A., & Wang, W. (2023) · Knowledge-Based Systems · doi:10.1016/j.knosys.2023.110837 · Cited by 17
The role of distinct ECoG frequency features in decoding finger movement
Merino, E. C., Faes, A., & Hulle, M. M. V. (2023) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ad0c5e · Cited by 16
“This has been successfully demonstrated in patients controlling a paralysed upper limb through neuromuscular stimulation [2, 3], a prosthetic limb [4, 5] an exoskeleton [6], or having their imagined handwriting movements translated into text [7].”
Li, C., Liu, Y., Li, J., Miao, Y., Liu, J., & Song, L. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering · doi:10.1109/tnsre.2023.3348981 · Cited by 14
“Decoding neural signals with complex semantics under bilingualism requires consideration not only of the differences in brain use under different languages but also of the complexity of semantics and changes in neural signals over time [19].”
BackgroundInfluentialVisual tracking brain-computer interface
Huang, C., Shi, N., Miao, Y., Chen, X., Wang, Y., & Gao, X. (2024) · iScience · doi:10.1016/j.isci.2024.109376 · Cited by 15
Intelligent Neural Interfaces: An Emerging Era in Neurotechnology
Shoaran, M., Shin, U., & Shaeri, M. (2024) · Custom Integrated Circuits Conference · doi:10.1109/cicc60959.2024.10529099 · Cited by 16
“A new generation of BMIs [16-18 , 24 ] strives to greatly improve the restoration of lost communication abilities such as writing and speech for paralyzed patients.”
BackgroundJin, C., Song, A. H., & Kim, S. (2024) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2024.3406736 · Cited by 15
“The brain-computer interface (BCI) is an emerging technology that interprets neural activities and controls external devices, including electric wheelchairs, prostheses, robotic arms, spellers, and drones [1], [2], [3], [4], [5].”
BackgroundLim, M. J. R., Lo, Y. T., Tan, Y. Y., Lin, H.-Y., Wang, Y., Tan, D., Wang, E., Ma, Y. Y. N., Ng, J. J. W., Jefree, R. A., et al. (2025) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/adb88e · Cited by 18
“As communication iBCI systems developed over time, patients were able to type out phrases and sentences in real-time [60, 73], execute tasks of daily living involving communication [47] and eventually decode text at near-conversational speed and accuracy [74].”
5-year follow-up of a fully implanted brain–computer interface in a spinal cord injury patient
Davis, K., Wyse‐Sookoo, K., Raza, F., Meschede-Krasa, B., Prins, N. W., Fisher, L., Brown, E. N., Cajigas, I., Ivan, M. E., Jagid, J. R., et al. (2025) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/adc48c · Cited by 16
On The Verge of the Hybrid Mind
Soekadar, S. R., Chandler, J. A., Ienca, M., & Bublitz, C. (2021) · Morals & Machines · doi:10.5771/2747-5182-2021-1-30 · Cited by 14
A low-power communication scheme for wireless, 1000 channel brain–machine interfaces
Costello, J. T., Nason, S. R., An, H., Lee, J., Mender, M. J., Temmar, H., Wallace, D. M., Lim, J., Willsey, M. S., Patil, P. G., et al. (2022) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ac7352 · Cited by 14
“These systems have allowed participants to control prosthetic arms [1], [2], write text [3], and functionally stimulate paralyzed limbs [4].”
BackgroundLong-term unsupervised recalibration of cursor BCIsPreprint
Wilson, G. H., Willett, F. R., Stein, E. A., Kamdar, F. B., Avansino, D. T., Hochberg, L. R., Shenoy, K. V., Druckmann, S., & Henderson, J. M. (2023) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2023.02.03.527022 · Cited by 14
Self-citationNeural representation of action symbols in primate frontal cortex
Tian, L. Y., Gupta, K. G., Hanuska, D. J., Rouse, A. G., Eldridge, M. A. G., Schieber, M. H., Wang, X., Tenenbaum, J. B., & Freiwald, W. A. (2026) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-026-10297-x · Cited by 19
“Note that the FVAF values we found in M1 are comparable to the average value of 0.3 in a previous study of the motor cortex in human handwriting 101 .”
InfluentialLi, J., Zhang, W., Liao, Y., Qiu, Y., Zhu, Y., Zhang, X., & Wang, C. (2025) · Physics of Life Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.plrev.2025.08.007 · Cited by 18
Revisiting embodiment for brain–computer interfaces
Serim, B., Spapé, M., & Jacucci, G. (2023) · Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/07370024.2023.2170801 · Cited by 15
“For example, many recent BCIs (e.g., Blankertz et al., 2007; Makin et al., 2020; Willett et al., 2021) exploit existing motor imagery patterns in the brain to reduce training time and improve performance.”
Brain implants that enable speech pass performance milestones
Ramsey, N. F., & Crone, N. E. (2023) · Nature · doi:10.1038/d41586-023-02546-0 · Cited by 13
Decoding Silent Reading EEG Signals Using Adaptive Feature Graph Convolutional Network
Li, C., Fang, G., Liu, Y., Liu, J., & Song, L. (2023) · IEEE Signal Processing Letters · doi:10.1109/lsp.2023.3337727 · Cited by 13
“Inexistingstudies[3],[4],[5],itispos-sibletodecodetheneuralsignalsofsilentlyreadletters,words, andphrasesusingElectrocorticography(ECoG).”
Whitsitt, Q. A., Saxena, A., Patel, B., Evans, B. M., Hunt, B., & Purcell, E. K. (2024) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ad5936 · Cited by 22
“Recent advances in recording-based implants have restored quadriplegic [1, 2] or quadriparesis [3] patients’ ability to communicate.”
BackgroundDillen, A., Omidi, M., Ghaffari, F., et al. (2024) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ad7f8d · Cited by 13
“From enabling communication for those with severe motor disabilities [1] to teleoperation of industrial robots for healthy individuals [2], the applications of BCI are numerous, enabling previously impossible or impractical user scenarios [3].”
A Highly Efficient Low-Cost Flexible Neural Probe for Scalable Mass Fabrication
Lee, H., Lee, S., Lee, S., Lee, J., Chou, N., & Shin, H. (2025) · ACS Omega · doi:10.1021/acsomega.5c01419 · Cited by 13
Lee, T., Kim, M. K., Lee, H. J., & Je, M. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2022.3146324 · Cited by 14
Non-human primate models and systems for gait and neurophysiological analysis
Liang, F., Yu, S., Pang, S., Wang, X., Jie, J., Gao, F., Song, Z., Li, B., Liao, W., & Yin, M. (2023) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2023.1141567 · Cited by 13
“BCIs are promising to help restore movement, tactile sense, and communication in patients with paralysis (Hochberg et al., 2006, 2012; Collinger et al., 2013; Aflalo et al., 2015; Lebedev and Nicolelis, 2017; Willett et al., 2021; Drew, 2022).”
BackgroundA mosaic of whole-body representations in human motor cortexPreprint
Deo, D. R., Okorokova, E. V., Pritchard, A. L., Hahn, N. V., Card, N. S., Nason, S. R., Jude, J. J., Hosman, T., Choi, E. Y., Qiu, D., et al. (2024) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2024.09.14.613041 · Cited by 13
“This library has been extensively used in our prior reports 11,18,40,64 (see code repository https://github.com/fwillett/cvVectorStats).”
MethodSelf-citationStatistical mechanics for networks of real neurons
Meshulam, L., & Bialek, W. (2025) · Reviews of Modern Physics · doi:10.1103/jcrn-3nrc · Cited by 19
Flexible and smart electronics for single-cell resolved brain–machine interfaces
Lee, A. J., Wang, W., & Jia Liu, B. (2023) · Applied Physics Reviews · doi:10.1063/5.0115879 · Cited by 11
Liv, N., & Greenbaum, D. S. (2023) · Advances in neuroethics · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-26801-4_13 · Cited by 11
Advances in Neurorestoratology—Current status and future developments
Huang, H., Ramón‐Cueto, A., Masri, W. E., Moviglia, G. A., Saberi, H., Sharma, H. S., Otom, A. H., Chen, L., Siniscalco, D., & Sarnowska, A. (2023) · International review of neurobiology · doi:10.1016/bs.irn.2023.04.003 · Cited by 12
Tan, J., Zhang, X., Wu, S., Song, Z., Chen, S., Huang, Y., & Wang, Y. (2023) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ad017d · Cited by 13
“Brain–machine interfaces (BMIs) build a direct communication pathway between brains and external devices, providing a promising solution for people with motor disabilities [1, 2].”
Single-trial detection of auditory cues from the rat brain using memristors
Sbandati, C., Stathopoulos, S., Foster, P., Peer, N. D., Sestito, C., Serb, A., Vassanelli, S., Cohen, D., & Prodromakis, T. (2024) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.adp7613 · Cited by 13
“This aligns with emerging approaches linking neural activity to behavior using threshold crossing features ( 17 , 54 ), which do not require precise preservation of neural waveform shapes.”
Yang, X., Xiong, X., Li, X., Lian, Q., Zhu, J., Zhang, J., Qi, Y., & Wang, Y. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering · doi:10.1109/tnsre.2024.3492191 · Cited by 12
Categorizing objects from MEG signals using EEGNet
Shi, R., Zhao, Y., Cao, Z., Liu, C., Kang, Y., & Zhang, J. (2021) · Cognitive Neurodynamics · doi:10.1007/s11571-021-09717-7 · Cited by 12
Kuai, H., Tao, X., & Zhong, N. (2022) · World Wide Web · doi:10.1007/s11280-022-01030-5 · Cited by 13
“The brain cloud/ machine interface technologies are designed to enable the real-time interactions among the brains, machines and things in the social-cyber-physical spaces [77, 98].”
BackgroundFang, T., Wang, J., Mu, W., Song, Z., Zhang, X., Zhan, G., Wang, P., Bin, J., Niu, L., Zhang, L., et al. (2022) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/aca82d · Cited by 13
“For example, subjects can complete text input [1], or control cursor and robotic arm movements just by imagining [2].”
Flexible electrodes for non-invasive brain–computer interfaces: A perspective
Huang, Z., Zhou, Z., Zeng, J., Lin, S., & Wu, H. (2022) · APL Materials · doi:10.1063/5.0099722 · Cited by 11
A Spatial Transcriptomics Study of the Brain-Electrode Interface in Rat Motor CortexPreprint
Whitsitt, Q. A., Patel, B., Hunt, B., & Purcell, E. K. (2021) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2021.12.03.471147 · Cited by 12
“Here, in an extension of our previous work(22), we report the application of a newer spatial transcriptomics method which has three advantages over our previous approach: (1) it reports the transcriptional profile of individual genes with near cellular-scale resolution across the entire landscape of a tissue section c…”
MethodA flexible intracortical brain-computer interface for typing using finger movementsPreprint
Shah, N. P., Willsey, M. S., Hahn, N. V., Kamdar, F. B., Avansino, D. T., Fan, C., Hochberg, L. R., Willett, F. R., & Henderson, J. M. (2024) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2024.04.22.590630 · Cited by 13
“…have made significant strides, enabling control over 2D cursors (Bacher et al. 2015; Jarosiewicz et al. 2015; Gilja et al. 2015; Pandarinath et al. 2017), facilitating handwriting (Willett et al. 2021), and even supporting speech (Willett et al. 2023; Metzger et al. 2023; Card et al. 2023).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationMeng, J., Wei, Y., Mai, X., Li, S., Wang, X., Luo, R., Ji, M., & Zhu, X. (2025) · Medical & Biological Engineering & Computing · doi:10.1007/s11517-025-03340-y · Cited by 15
“For example, in 2021, decoding the attempted handwriting movements using invasive BCI demonstrated a 90 charac-ters-per-minute typing speed, which showed a new way of expanding the number of discrete classification categories [24].”
Electrode Arrays for Detecting and Modulating Deep Brain Neural Information in Primates: A Review
Zhang, S., Song, Y., Lv, S., Jing, L., Wang, M., Liu, Y., Xu, W., Jiao, P., Zhang, S., Wang, M., et al. (2025) · Cyborg and Bionic Systems · doi:10.34133/cbsystems.0249 · Cited by 16
Graph-regularized geometric deep learning for motor imagery EEG decoding via multi-domain fusion
Chu, C., Shen, J., & Xiao, Q. (2025) · Pattern Recognition · doi:10.1016/j.patcog.2025.112976 · Cited by 13
Wang, D. X., Ng, N., Seger, S. E., Ekstrom, A. D., Kriegel, J., & Lega, B. C. (2023) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhad105 · Cited by 11
Tao, Q., Chao, H., Fang, D., & Dou, D. (2023) · Neural Regeneration Research · doi:10.4103/1673-5374.375342 · Cited by 13
Metadata
- Authors
- Willett, F. R., Avansino, D. T., Hochberg, L. R., Henderson, J. M., & Shenoy, K. V.
- Affiliations
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute (US)
- Harvard University (US)
- Stanford Medicine (US)
- Corresponding author
- Willett, Francis R.
- Venue
- Nature
- Published
- 2021-05-12
- Volume
- 593
- Issue
- 7858
- Pages
- 249-254
- ISSN
- 0028-0836 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-4687
- PMC
- PMC8163299
- OpenAlex
- W3161343553
- Semantic Scholar
- bebaab40b42e63cd7cef7b334e5f6bacdcccfc79
- Cited by
- 1,024
- References
- 50
- Citations by year
- 2026: 187 · 2025: 225 · 2024: 203 · 2023: 203 · 2022: 134 · 2021: 67
- FWCI
- 70.16
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- doi.org
- Licence
- public-domain
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- www.springer.com/tdm (vor)
- Locations
- Nature (publishedVersion)
- bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) (submittedVersion, public-domain)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute
- U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (I01 RX002295, I50RX002864, B6453-R, N-2864-C)
- Massachusetts General Hospital
- Office of Research and Development (N2864C, B6453R)
- National Institutes of Health (5uh2ns095548-02, 5u01dc017844-06)
- Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute, Stanford University
- National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (R01DC009899, DC017844, R01DC014034, U01- DC017844)
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (UH2-NS095548, U01NS098968, NS095548)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › EEG and Brain-Computer Interfaces
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neuroscience and Neural Engineering
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Gaze Tracking and Assistive Technology
- Keywords
- brain-computer interface, handwriting, text entry, motor cortex, intracortical recording, spinal cord injury, paralysis, real-time communication, typing speed
- MeSH terms
- Brain, Communication, Handwriting, Humans, Spinal Cord Injuries, Time Factors, Neural Networks, Computer, Brain-Computer Interfaces
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-09-28, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-09-28 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
