Lithium Tantalate Photonic Integrated Circuits for Volume Manufacturing
Open accessAbstract
Abstract Electro-optical photonic integrated circuits (PICs) based on lithium niobate (LiNbO 3 ) have demonstrated the vast capabilities of materials with a high Pockels coefficient 1,2 . They enable linear and high-speed modulators operating at complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor voltage levels 3 to be used in applications including data-centre communications 4 , high-performance computing and photonic accelerators for AI 5 . However, industrial use of this technology is hindered by the high cost per wafer and the limited wafer size. The high cost results from the lack of existing high-volume applications in other domains of the sort that accelerated the adoption of silicon-on-insulator (SOI) photonics, which was driven by vast investment in microelectronics. Here we report low-loss PICs made of lithium tantalate (LiTaO 3 ), a material that has already been adopted commercially for 5G radiofrequency filters 6 and therefore enables scalable manufacturing at low cost, and it has equal, and in some cases superior, properties to LiNbO 3 . We show that LiTaO 3 can be etched to create low-loss (5.6 dB m −1 ) PICs using a deep ultraviolet (DUV) stepper-based manufacturing process 7 . We demonstrate a LiTaO 3 Mach–Zehnder modulator (MZM) with a half-wave voltage–length product of 1.9 V cm and an electro-optic bandwidth of up to 40 GHz. In comparison with LiNbO 3 , LiTaO 3 exhibits a much lower birefringence, enabling high-density circuits and broadband operation over all telecommunication bands. Moreover, the platform supports the generation of soliton microcombs. Our work paves the way for the scalable manufacture of low-cost and large-volume next-generation electro-optical PICs.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Stoichiometric complex oxide thin films promise ultrafast light control and massive optical parallelism, which classical electronic systems cannot achieve.
“Current trends in the field of photonics regarding the transition from bulk crystalbased devices to photonic integrated circuits (PICs), and, more specifically, to nonlinear integrated photonics, propel the utilisation of thin films based on stoichiometric complex oxides (such as lithium niobate, lithium tantalate, and barium titanate) since they simultaneously promise both ultrafast light control”
From Metal Oxide Thin Films for Advanced Photonic Applications (2026) · cites this paper as [165]
The Abstract and Electro-optical modulation section support high-speed light control in lithium tantalate thin-film PICs, including a measured electro-optic bandwidth above 40 GHz. The paper also discusses lithium niobate, but the passages do not establish the claim for barium titanate or address massive optical parallelism or what classical electronic systems cannot achieve. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Deep learning with coherent nanophotonic circuits
Shen, Y., Harris, N. C., Skirlo, S., Prabhu, M., Baehr-Jones, T., Hochberg, M., Sun, X., Zhao, S., Larochelle, H., Englund, D., et al. (2017) · Nature Photonics · doi:10.1038/nphoton.2017.93 · Cited by 3,340 · see citing works
Integrated lithium niobate electro-optic modulators operating at CMOS-compatible voltages
Wang, C., Zhang, M., Chen, X., Bertrand, M., Shams-Ansari, A., Chandrasekhar, S., Winzer, P., & Lončar, M. (2018) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0551-y · Cited by 2,593 · see citing works
Self-citationTemporal solitons in optical microresonators
Herr, T., Brasch, V., Jost, J. D., Wang, C. Y., Kondratiev, N. M., Gorodetsky, M. L., & Kippenberg, T. J. (2013) · Nature Photonics · doi:10.1038/nphoton.2013.343 · Cited by 2,135 · see citing works
Self-citationDissipative Kerr solitons in optical microresonators
Kippenberg, T. J., Gaeta, A. L., Lipson, M. F., & Gorodetsky, M. L. (2018) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.aan8083 · Cited by 1,831 · see citing works
Self-citationIntegrated photonics on thin-film lithium niobate
Zhu, D., Shao, L., Yu, M., Cheng, R., Desiatov, B., Xin, C. J., Hu, Y., Holzgrafe, J., Ghosh, S., Shams-Ansari, A., et al. (2021) · Advances in Optics and Photonics · doi:10.1364/aop.411024 · Cited by 1,516 · see citing works
Thomson, D., Zilkie, A., Bowers, J. E., Komljenovic, T., Reed, G. T., Vivien, L., Marris-Morini, D., Cassan, E., Virot, L., Fédéli, J.-M., et al. (2016) · Journal of Optics · doi:10.1088/2040-8978/18/7/073003 · Cited by 1,363 · see citing works
He, M., Xu, M., Ren, Y., Jian, J., Ruan, Z., Xu, Y., Gao, S., Sun, S., Wen, X., Zhou, L., et al. (2019) · Nature Photonics · doi:10.1038/s41566-019-0378-6 · Cited by 1,204 · see citing works
Broadband electro-optic frequency comb generation in a lithium niobate microring resonator
Zhang, M., Buscaino, B., Wang, C., Shams-Ansari, A., Reimer, C., Zhu, R., Kahn, J. M., & Lončar, M. (2019) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1008-7 · Cited by 980 · see citing works
Self-citationLithium niobate photonics: Unlocking the electromagnetic spectrum
Boes, A., Chang, L., Langrock, C., Yu, M., Zhang, M., Lin, Q., Lončar, M., Fejer, M. M., Bowers, J. E., & Mitchell, A. (2023) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.abj4396 · Cited by 671 · see citing works
Perspective on the future of silicon photonics and electronics
Margalit, N., Xiang, C., Bowers, S. M., Bjorlin, A., Blum, R., & Bowers, J. E. (2021) · Applied Physics Letters · doi:10.1063/5.0050117 · Cited by 641 · see citing works
Optically Induced Change of Refractive Indices in LiNbO3 and LiTaO3
Chen, F. S. (1969) · Journal of Applied Physics · doi:10.1063/1.1658195 · Cited by 575 · see citing works
Photonic microwave generation in the X- and K-band using integrated soliton microcombs
Liu, J., Lucas, E., Raja, A. S., He, J., Riemensberger, J., Wang, R. N., Karpov, M., Guo, H., Bouchand, R., & Kippenberg, T. J. (2020) · Nature Photonics · doi:10.1038/s41566-020-0617-x · Cited by 493 · see citing works
Self-citationLiu, J., Huang, G., Wang, R. N., He, J., Raja, A. S., Liu, T., Engelsen, N. J., & Kippenberg, T. J. (2021) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-021-21973-z · Cited by 478 · see citing works
Self-citationXu, M., Zhu, Y., Pittalà, F., Tang, J., He, M., Ng, W. C., Wang, J., Ruan, Z., Tang, X., Kuschnerov, M., et al. (2021) · Optica · doi:10.1364/optica.449691 · Cited by 366 · see citing works
Zhao, J., Ma, C., Rüsing, M., & Mookherjea, S. (2020) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.124.163603 · Cited by 362 · see citing works
Tunable Ultraviolet Radiation by Second-Harmonic Generation in Periodically Poled Lithium Tantalate
Meyn, J.-P., & Fejer, M. M. (1997) · Optics Letters · doi:10.1364/ol.22.001214 · Cited by 288 · see citing works
Frequency comb assisted diode laser spectroscopy for measurement of microcavity dispersion
Del’Haye, P., Arcizet, O., Gorodetsky, M. L., Holzwarth, R., & Kippenberg, T. J. (2009) · Nature Photonics · doi:10.1038/nphoton.2009.138 · Cited by 283 · see citing works
Self-citationIon-cut lithium niobate on insulator technology: Recent advances and perspectives
Jia, Y., Wang, L., & Chen, F. (2021) · Applied Physics Reviews · doi:10.1063/5.0037771 · Cited by 276 · see citing works
BRUEL, M., & AUBERTON-HERVE, B. A. A.-J. (1997) · Japanese Journal of Applied Physics · doi:10.1143/jjap.36.1636 · Cited by 264 · see citing works
Microwave-optical quantum frequency conversion
Han, X., Fu, W., Zou, C., Jiang, L., & Tang, H. X. (2021) · Optica · doi:10.1364/optica.425414 · Cited by 226 · see citing works
Thermal and Nonlinear Dissipative-Soliton Dynamics in Kerr-Microresonator Frequency Combs
Stone, J. R., Briles, T. C., Drake, T. E., Spencer, D. T., Carlson, D. R., Diddams, S. A., & Papp, S. B. (2018) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.121.063902 · Cited by 223 · see citing works
High-efficiency and broadband on-chip electro-optic frequency comb generators
Hu, Y., Yu, M., Buscaino, B., Sinclair, N. E., Zhu, D., Cheng, R., Shams‐Ansari, A., Shao, L., Zhang, M., Kahn, J. M., et al. (2022) · Nature Photonics · doi:10.1038/s41566-022-01059-y · Cited by 218 · see citing works
Wafer-scale low-loss lithium niobate photonic integrated circuits
Luke, K. J., Kharel, P., Reimer, C., He, L., Lončar, M., & Zhang, M. (2020) · Optics Express · doi:10.1364/oe.401959 · Cited by 200 · see citing works
Raman spectroscopy of lithium niobate and lithium tantalate. Force field calculations
Repelin, Y., HUSSON, E., Bennani, F., & Proust, C. (1999) · Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids · doi:10.1016/s0022-3697(98)00333-3 · Cited by 198 · see citing works
Optical properties of reduced lithium niobate single crystals
Dhar, A., & Mansingh, A. (1990) · Journal of Applied Physics · doi:10.1063/1.346951 · Cited by 190 · see citing works
High Density Lithium Niobate Photonic Integrated Circuits
Li, Z., Wang, R. N., Lihachev, G., Zhang, J., Tan, Z., Churaev, M., Kuznetsov, N., Siddharth, A., Bereyhi, M. J., Riemensberger, J., et al. (2023) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-023-40502-8 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
Self-citationFew-cycle vacuum squeezing in nanophotonics
Nehra, R., Sekine, R., Ledezma, L. M., Guo, Q., Gray, R. M., Roy, A., & Marandi, A. (2022) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.abo6213 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
Reduced material loss in thin-film lithium niobate waveguides
Shams‐Ansari, A., Huang, G., He, L., Li, Z., Holzgrafe, J., Jankowski, M., Churaev, M., Kharel, P., Cheng, R., Zhu, D., et al. (2022) · APL Photonics · doi:10.1063/5.0095146 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Self-citationA cryogenic electro-optic interconnect for superconducting devices
Youssefi, A., Shomroni, I., Joshi, Y. J., Bernier, N., Lukashchuk, A., Uhrich, P., Qiu, L., & Kippenberg, T. J. (2021) · Nature Electronics · doi:10.1038/s41928-021-00570-4 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Self-citationJaverzac‐Galy, C., Plekhanov, K., Bernier, N., Tóth, L. D., Feofanov, A. K., & Kippenberg, T. J. (2016) · Physical Review A · doi:10.1103/physreva.94.053815 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Self-citationFundamental mode hybridization in a thin film lithium niobate ridge waveguide
Pan, A., Hu, C., Zeng, C., & Xia, J. (2019) · Optics Express · doi:10.1364/oe.27.035659 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Yan, Y., Huang, K., Zhou, H., Zhao, X., Li, W., Li, Z., Yi, A., Huang, H., Lin, J., Zhang, S., et al. (2019) · ACS Applied Electronic Materials · doi:10.1021/acsaelm.9b00351 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Self-citationInnovative Smart Cut™ Piezo On Insulator (POI) Substrates for 5G acoustic filters
Butaud, E., Ballandras, S., Bousquet, M., Drouin, A., Tavel, B., Huyet, I., Clairet, A., Bertrand, I., Ghorbel, A., & Reinhardt, A. (2020) · Technical digest - International Electron Devices Meeting/Technical digest · doi:10.1109/iedm13553.2020.9372020 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
High-speed tunable microwave-rate soliton microcomb
He, Y., Lopez‐Rios, R., Javid, U. A., Ling, J., Li, M., Xue, S., Vahala, K. J., & Lin, Q. (2023) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-023-39229-3 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
The Optical Bandgap of Lithium Niobate (LiNbO3) and Its Dependence with Temperature
Zanatta, A. R. (2022) · Results in Physics · doi:10.1016/j.rinp.2022.105736 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Urbach rule and optical properties of the LiNbO3and LiTaO3
Çabuk, S., & Mamedov, A. A. (1999) · Journal of Optics A Pure and Applied Optics · doi:10.1088/1464-4258/1/3/313 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
High optical damage threshold on-chip lithium tantalate microdisk resonator
Yan, X., Liu, Y., Ge, L., Zhu, B., Wu, J., Chen, Y., & Chen, X. (2020) · Optics Letters · doi:10.1364/ol.394171 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Self-citationLu, C., Zhang, Y., Qiu, J., Tang, Y., Ding, T., Liu, S., Zheng, Y., & Chen, X. (2022) · Optics Letters · doi:10.1364/ol.449634 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Performance of LiTaO3 Crystals and Thin Films and Their Application
Xiao, X., Liang, S., Si, J., Xu, Q., Zhang, H., Ma, L., Yang, C., & Zhang, X. (2023) · Crystals · doi:10.3390/cryst13081233 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Ballandras, S., Courjon, E., Bernard, F., Laroche, T., Clairet, A., Radu, I., Huyet, I., Drouin, A., & Butaud, E. (2019) · Joint Conference of the European Frequency and Time Forum and IEEE International Frequency Control Symposium (EFTF/IFCS) · doi:10.1109/fcs.2019.8855991 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Monolithic Kerr and electro-optic hybrid microcombs
Gong, Z., Shen, M., Lu, J., Surya, J. B., & Tang, H. X. (2022) · Optica · doi:10.1364/optica.462055 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Gruber, M., Konetschnik, R., Popov, M., Spitaler, J., Supancic, P., Kiener, D., & Bermejo, R. (2018) · Acta Materialia · doi:10.1016/j.actamat.2018.03.020 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Ultrahigh Q whispering gallery mode electro-optic resonators on a silicon photonic chip
Soltani, M., Ilchenko, V. S., Matsko, A. B., Savchenkov, A. A., Schlafer, J., Ryan, C. A., & Maleki, L. (2016) · Optics Letters · doi:10.1364/ol.41.004375 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Characteristics of Coplanar Waveguide on Lithium Niobate Crystals as a Microwave Substrate
Yang, R.-Y., Su, Y.-K., Weng, M.-H., Hung, C.-Y., & Wu, H.-W. (2007) · Journal of Applied Physics · doi:10.1063/1.2402978 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Jacob, M. V., Hartnett, J. G., Mazierska, J., Giordano, V., Krupka, J., & Tobar, M. E. (2004) · IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques · doi:10.1109/tmtt.2003.821911 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Low loss optical waveguides fabricated in LiTaO<sub>3</sub> by swift heavy ion irradiation
Tormo-Marquez, V., Díaz-Hijar, M., Carrascosa, M., Shur, V. Y., & Olivares, J. (2019) · Optics Express · doi:10.1364/oe.27.008696 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
High density lithium niobate photonic integrated circuits
Li, Z., Wang, R. N., Lihachev, G., Tan, Z., Churaev, M., Siddharth, A., Bereyhi, M. J., Riemensberger, J., & Kippenberg, T. J. (2023) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics · doi:10.5281/zenodo.7966707 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Self-citationChannel Waveguides in Lithium Niobate and Lithium Tantalate
Lu, Y., Johnston, B. F., Dekker, P., Withford, M. J., & Dawes, J. M. (2020) · Molecules · doi:10.3390/molecules25173925 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Lithium tantalate photonic integrated circuits for volume manufacturing
Wang, C., & Kippenberg, T. J. (2023) · Infoscience (Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne) · doi:10.5281/zenodo.10215426 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- [37]Wang, J., Chen, P., Dai, D. & Liu, L. Polarization coupling of X -cut thin film lithium niobate based waveguides. IEEE Photonics J. 12, 2200310 (2020).
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Ultrabroadband thin-film lithium tantalate modulator for high-speed communications
Wang, C., Fang, D., Zhang, J., Kotz, A., Lihachev, G., Churaev, M., Li, Z., Schwarzenberger, A., Ou, X., Koos, C. G., et al. (2024) · Optica · doi:10.1364/optica.537730 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Self-citationUltrabroadband integrated electro-optic frequency comb in lithium tantalate
Zhang, J., Wang, C., Denney, C., Riemensberger, J., Lihachev, G., Hu, J., Kao, W., Blésin, T., Kuznetsov, N., Li, Z., et al. (2025) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-024-08354-4 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Self-citationYi, J., Guo, C., Ruan, Z., Chen, G., Wei, H., Lu, L., Gong, S., Pan, X., Shen, X., Guan, X., et al. (2024) · Light Science & Applications · doi:10.1038/s41377-024-01506-1 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
DC-stable electro-optic modulators using thin-film lithium tantalate
Powell, K. B., Li, X., Assumpção, D., Magalhaes, L. S., Sinclair, N. E., & Lončar, M. (2024) · Optics Express · doi:10.1364/oe.538870 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Integrated structured light manipulation
Wang, J., Li, K., & Quan, Z. (2024) · Photonics Insights · doi:10.3788/pi.2024.r05 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Efficient mass manufacturing of high-density, ultra-low-loss Si 3 N 4 photonic integrated circuits
Ji, X., Wang, R. N., Liu, Y., Riemensberger, J., Qiu, Z., & Kippenberg, T. J. (2024) · Optica · doi:10.1364/optica.529673 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Self-citationTian, W., Wang, Y., Dang, H., Hou, H., & Xi, Y. (2025) · Photonics · doi:10.3390/photonics12080821 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
A review of gallium phosphide nanophotonics towards omnipotent nonlinear devices
Wang, Y., Pan, Z., Yan, Y., Yang, Y., Zhao, W., Ding, N., Tang, X., Wu, P., Zhao, Q., & Li, Y. (2024) · Nanophotonics · doi:10.1515/nanoph-2024-0172 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Photonics-integrated terahertz transmission lines
Lampert, Y., Shams‐Ansari, A., Gaier, A., Tomasino, A., Cao, X., Magalhaes, L. S., Rajabali, S., Lončar, M., & Benea-Chelmus, I.-C. (2025) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-025-62267-y · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Integrated Optical Tunable Delay Line and Microwave Photonic Beamforming Chip: A Review
Shi, S., Niu, H., Shi, W., Lin, D., Li, S., Pan, S., & Yun, B. (2024) · Laser & Photonics Review · doi:10.1002/lpor.202400663 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Enhanced Detection Rate and High Photon-Number Efficiencies with a Scalable Parallel SNSPD
Stasi, L., Taher, T., Resta, G. V., Zbinden, H., Thew, R., & Bussières, F. (2024) · ACS Photonics · doi:10.1021/acsphotonics.4c01680 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
A high-speed heterogeneous lithium tantalate silicon photonics platform
Niels, M., Vanackere, T., Vissers, E., Zhai, T., Nenezic, P., Declercq, J., Bruynsteen, C., Niu, S., Moerman, A., Caytan, O., et al. (2026) · Nature Photonics · doi:10.1038/s41566-025-01832-9 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
2D material platform for overcoming the amplitude–phase tradeoff in ring resonators
Datta, I., Gil-Molina, A., Chae, S. H., Zhou, V., Hone, J., & Lipson, M. F. (2023) · Optica · doi:10.1364/optica.498484 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Butt, M. A., & Mateos, X. (2024) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app14146365 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Microcomb technology: from principles to applications
Shu, H., Shen, B., Chang, H., Han, J., Xiao, J., & Wang, X. (2024) · Photonics Insights · doi:10.3788/pi.2024.r09 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Self-citationToward Large‐Scale Photonic Chips Using Low‐Anisotropy Thin‐Film Lithium‐Tantalate
Huang, F., Shen, X., Wang, S., Xu, H., Liu, H., Wang, Z., Gao, H., Yao, X.-M., Cao, H., Chen, B., et al. (2025) · Advanced Science · doi:10.1002/advs.202410345 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Self-citationStable gigahertz- and mmWave-repetition-rate soliton microcombs on X-cut lithium niobate
Song, Y., Zhu, X., Zuo, X., Huang, G., & Lončar, M. (2025) · Optica · doi:10.1364/optica.562208 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Hybrid lithium tantalite-silicon integrated photonics platform for electro-optic modulation
Shen, J., Zhang, Y., Feng, C., Xu, Z., Zhang, L., & Su, Y. (2023) · Optics Letters · doi:10.1364/ol.502492 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Xu, S., Liu, W., Le, X., & Lee, C. (2024) · Nano Letters · doi:10.1021/acs.nanolett.4c03622 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
High-Q integrated lithium tantalate microring resonators for on-chip comb generation
Cai, J., Wang, P., Li, J., Chen, B., Zhou, L., Ke, X., Yang, B., Yi, A., Wang, C., Zhang, J., et al. (2024) · Optics Letters · doi:10.1364/ol.532214 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Self-citationA comprehensive survey on optical modulation techniques for advanced photonics applications
Liu, H., Liu, X., Peng, L., Huang, Z., & Wu, Q. (2024) · Optics and Lasers in Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.optlaseng.2024.108773 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Thin-Film Lithium Tantalate Modulator Operating at High Optical Power
Wang, H., Cui, A., Chen, B., Ruan, Z., Guo, C., Chen, K., & Liu, L. (2025) · ACS Photonics · doi:10.1021/acsphotonics.5c00159 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Soliton microcombs in X-cut LiNbO3 microresonators
Nie, B., Lv, X., Yang, C., Ma, R., Zhu, K., Wang, Z., Liu, Y., Xie, Z., Jin, X., Zhang, G., et al. (2025) · eLight · doi:10.1186/s43593-025-00093-x · Cited by 20 · see citing works
AI‑driven photonic noses: from conventional sensors to cloud‑to-edge intelligent microsystems
Zhou, H., Zhang, H., Zhang, R., Yuan, X., & Chang, H. (2025) · Microsystems & Nanoengineering · doi:10.1038/s41378-025-01058-3 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Micro-transfer printing of O-band InAs/GaAs quantum-dot SOAs on silicon photonic integrated circuits
Liu, Y., Zhang, J., Bogaert, L., Soltanian, E., Delli, E., Morozov, K., Mikhrin, S. S., Rimböck, J., Lepage, G., Verheyen, P., et al. (2025) · Photonics Research · doi:10.1364/prj.545946 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Self-citationTowards High-Performance Pockels Effect-Based Modulators: Review and Projections
Li, Y., Sun, M. M. Z.-G., Miao, T., & Chen, J. (2024) · Micromachines · doi:10.3390/mi15070865 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Fundamental charge noise in electro-optic photonic integrated circuits
Zhang, J., Li, Z., Riemensberger, J., Lihachev, G., Huang, G., & Kippenberg, T. J. (2025) · Nature Physics · doi:10.1038/s41567-024-02739-y · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Self-citationWhat can be integrated on the silicon photonics platform and how?
Zhang, Y., Guo, X., Ji, X., Shen, J., He, A., & Su, Y. (2024) · APL Photonics · doi:10.1063/5.0220463 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Self-citationWu, J., Zhang, S., Ke, X., Zhang, L., Fang, X., Zheng, P., He, J., Tian, X., & Ou, X. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques · doi:10.1109/tmtt.2024.3484450 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Self-citationProgrammable integrated quantum photonics
Aharonovich, I., Crozier, K. B., & Neshev, D. N. (2026) · Nature Photonics · doi:10.1038/s41566-025-01830-x · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Optical switch with an ultralow DC drift based on thin-film lithium tantalate
Wang, H., Xing, X., Ruan, Z., Yu, J., Chen, K., Ou, X., & Liu, L. (2024) · Optics Letters · doi:10.1364/ol.531263 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Self-citationLi, H., Liu, W., Wu, Z., Chen, B., Wen, C., Wu, J., Liu, R., Yi, X., Song, L., Liu, L., et al. (2025) · Laser & Photonics Review · doi:10.1002/lpor.202401858 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Lithium tantalate resonant metasurfaces for highly efficient ultraviolet harmonic generation
Gao, S., Wang, Z., Lu, N., Xu, L., Han, Z., Rahmani, M., Jia, Y., & Chen, F. (2025) · Applied Physics Reviews · doi:10.1063/5.0258436 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Liao, Z., Golparvar, A. J., Bathaei, M. J., Cardoso, F. A., & Boutry, C. M. (2025) · Advanced Science · doi:10.1002/advs.202509934 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Chen, H., Zhang, X., Ye, Z., Chen, X., Huang, C., Zhan, P., Ou, X., Zhu, S. N., & Hu, X. (2025) · Optics Letters · doi:10.1364/ol.547762 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Self-citationArrayed waveguide gratings in lithium tantalate integrated photonics
Hulyal, S. U., Hu, J., Wang, C., Cai, J., Lihachev, G., & Kippenberg, T. J. (2025) · Optica · doi:10.1364/optica.565570 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Self-citationChen, M., Wang, C., Jia, K., Tian, X., Tang, J., Zhu, C., Gu, X., Zhao, Z., Wang, Z., Ye, Z., et al. (2025) · Optica · doi:10.1364/optica.565112 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Self-citationClassical-Decisive Quantum Internet by Integrated Photonics
Zhang, Y., Broberg, R., Zhu, A., Li, G., Ge, L., Smith, J. M., & Feng, L. (2025) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.adx6176 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Efficient Second-Harmonic Generation in Thin-Film Lithium Tantalate Through Modal Phase-Matching
Liu, J., Xia, G., Zhu, P., Zhang, K., Xu, P., & Zhu, Z. (2024) · Photonics · doi:10.3390/photonics11121150 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
High-efficiency bident edge coupler based on thin film lithium niobate
Liu, M., Zhang, T., Xu, B., Zhang, Y., Du, J. H., Sun, J., & Wang, J. (2025) · Optics Express · doi:10.1364/oe.558205 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Piezoelectric phononic integrated circuits
Balram, K. C. (2024) · Applied Physics Letters · doi:10.1063/5.0222394 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Wu, Y., Shao, S., Zhang, H., Xue, Q., Yang, S., Chen, H., & Chen, M. (2025) · Laser & Photonics Review · doi:10.1002/lpor.202502207 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
An 8 × 200 Gbps wavelength-division multiplexing transmitter using lithium tantalate
Zhu, M., Huang, F., Liu, D., Wang, W., Gao, A., Zhao, W., Zhao, S., Lian, D., Gao, C., Yu, Z., et al. (2025) · PhotoniX · doi:10.1186/s43074-025-00183-6 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Quantum critical electro-optic and piezo-electric nonlinearities
Anderson, C. P., Scuri, G., Chan, A., Eun, S., White, A. D., Ahn, G. H., Jilly‐Rehak, C. E., Safavi‐Naeini, A. H., Gasse, K. V., Li, L., et al. (2025) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.adx8657 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
PZT photonic materials and devices platform
Xie, Y., Wang, P., Yu, H., Zhong, C., Peng, J., Wang, J., Chen, Y., Han, Y., Li, A., Guan, Z., et al. (2024) · Journal of Semiconductors · doi:10.1088/1674-4926/24110020 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Self-citationMonolithic piezoelectrically tunable hybrid integrated laser with sub-fiber laser coherence
Voloshin, A., Attanasio, A., Siddharth, A., Bianconi, S., Bancora, A., Shadymov, V., Leni, S., Wang, R. N., Riemensberger, J., Bhave, S. A., et al. (2025) · Optica · doi:10.1364/optica.557578 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Self-citationJu, Z., Chang, Z., Xiao, N., Qian, X., Zhou, Y., & Ma, D. (2025) · Physical Review Applied · doi:10.1103/gp7t-klvy · Cited by 9 · see citing works
A sub-volt near-IR lithium tantalate electro-optic modulator
Powell, K. B., Renaud, D. L., Li, X., Assumpção, D., Xin, C. J., Sinclair, N. E., & Lončar, M. (2025) · APL Photonics · doi:10.1063/5.0278724 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Cladding‐Free On‐Chip Ultracompact Photonic Devices
Li, X., Chen, Q., Bai, L., Li, W., Chen, F., Ren, Y., Pan, Y., Han, N., Tong, M., Zhang, L., et al. (2025) · Laser & Photonics Review · doi:10.1002/lpor.202402117 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Free-space terabit/s coherent optical links via platicon frequency microcombs
Wang, W., Liu, H., Wu, J., McMillan, J. F., Lee, D.-I., Hu, F., Liu, W., Yang, J., Yang, H., Vinod, A. K., et al. (2025) · eLight · doi:10.1186/s43593-025-00082-0 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Self-locked broadband Raman-electro-optic microcomb
Wan, S., Wang, P., Li, M., Ma, R., Niu, R., Sun, F., Bo, F., Guo, G., & Dong, C. (2025) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-025-60161-1 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Yu, S., Qi, M., Zhu, H., Zhao, B., Qian, J., Wu, Y., Chen, Q., & Lu, J. (2025) · Nanophotonics · doi:10.1515/nanoph-2025-0201 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Li, T., Emon, M. J. H., Rahad, R., Chatterjee, A., Dalakoti, V., Liu, J., Yu, H., Mi, Z., Huang, S., & Zhao, Y. (2025) · Optical Materials Express · doi:10.1364/ome.569135 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Robust poling and frequency conversion on thin-film periodically poled lithium tantalate
Shelton, A., Xin, C. J., Powell, K. B., Yang, J., Lu, S., Sinclair, N., & Loncar, M. (2025) · APL Photonics · doi:10.1063/5.0272629 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Integrated Pockels Modulators on Silicon Photonics Platform
Shen, J. X., Zhang, Y., Chen, Y., Zhou, W., Zhang, X., Sun, M., Wang, X., Zhang, L., Li, X., Li, J., et al. (2024) · Advanced Physics Research · doi:10.1002/apxr.202400096 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationCai, J., Kotz, A., Larocque, H., Wang, C., Ji, X., Zhang, J., Drayß, D., Sun, J., Zheng, S., Ou, X., et al. (2026) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-026-69769-3 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationYi, X., Sun, D., Zhao, W., Li, H., Zhang, L., Shi, Y., & Daoxin Dai, A. (2024) · Nanophotonics · doi:10.1515/nanoph-2024-0320 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Cryogenic feedforward of a photonic quantum state
Thiele, F., Lamberty, N., Hummel, T., Lange, N. A., Procopio, L. M., Barua, A., Lengeling, S., Quiring, V., Eigner, C., Silberhorn, C., et al. (2025) · Optica · doi:10.1364/optica.551287 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Bin, 张. Z., & Feng, 陈. C. (2024) · Acta Optica Sinica · doi:10.3788/aos241091 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Lithium tantalate microring cavities with a Q factor exceeding 10 million
He, J., Zhao, X., Xu, J., & Sun, X. (2025) · Photonics Research · doi:10.1364/prj.550518 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Cai, J., Wan, S., Chen, B., Li, J., Wang, Q., Sui, D., Wang, P., Qu, Z., Ke, X., Zhu, Y., et al. (2025) · Photonics Research · doi:10.1364/prj.558364 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationPhotonic integrated technologies for future radio-over-fiber systems
Rinaldi, L., Scotti, F., Ghelfi, P., & Bogoni, A. (2025) · APL Photonics · doi:10.1063/5.0289727 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Weijie, 唐. T., & Tao, 储. C. (2024) · Acta Optica Sinica · doi:10.3788/aos240967 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Comparison of Thin-Film Lithium Niobate, SOH, and POH for Silicon Photonic Modulators
Yu, T.-C., Liu, A.-C., Huang, W.-T., Wu, C., Li, C., Kao, T.-S., Chang, S., Sher, C.-W., Lin, H.-Y., Chow, C., et al. (2025) · Photonics · doi:10.3390/photonics12050429 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Pr3+-Activated LiTaO3 Crystal for a Dual-Mode and Dual-Channel Versatile Luminescence Thermometer
Long, S., Liu, Z., Yang, X., & Wang, B. (2025) · Crystal Growth & Design · doi:10.1021/acs.cgd.4c01511 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Wang, X., Xing, X., Yang, X., Yang, X., Chen, Y., Ma, G., Wang, B., Zhao, Z., Yuan, C., Bai, Y., et al. (2024) · Technical digest - International Electron Devices Meeting/Technical digest · doi:10.1109/iedm50854.2024.10873400 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Self-citationFrom laboratory to prototype: the last-mile issue in whispering gallery mode resonator-based devices
Berneschi, S., Farnesi, D., Frigenti, G., Pelli, S., Conti, G. N., & Soria, S. (2025) · Optical Materials · doi:10.1016/j.optmat.2025.117248 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Li, J., Wang, F., & Deng, T. (2025) · Journal of Lightwave Technology · doi:10.1109/jlt.2025.3638423 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Integrated quantum photonics on thin-film lithium niobate
Karami, F., Thapalia, P., & Fathpour, S. (2026) · Progress in Quantum Electronics · doi:10.1016/j.pquantelec.2026.100614 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
The 2026 guided acoustic waves roadmap
Krenner, H. J., Santos, P. V., Westerhausen, C., Andersson, G., Cleland, A. N., Sellier, H., Takada, S., Bäuerle, C., Wigger, D., Kühn, T., et al. (2026) · Journal of Physics D Applied Physics · doi:10.1088/1361-6463/ae258d · Cited by 5 · see citing works
High-performance thin-film lithium niobate electro-optic modulator on a thick silica buffering layer
Xue, X., Xu, Y., ding, W., Ye, R., Qiu, J., Li, G., Dai, J., Liu, S., Li, H., Yuan, L., et al. (2026) · Optics Express · doi:10.1364/oe.588103 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Li, L., Wang, P., Shi, L., Kong, W., Liu, H., Romero, C., de Aldana, J. R. V., & Chen, F. (2025) · Optics Express · doi:10.1364/oe.569979 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Octave Soliton Microcombs in Z-Cut Lithium Tantalate Microrings
Zhu, H., Yu, S., Qian, J., Qi, M., Zhou, R., Chen, B., & Lu, J. (2025) · ACS Photonics · doi:10.1021/acsphotonics.5c01189 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Yunjia, 包. B., Ming, 李. L., Zhongyang, 刘. L., Zihao, 王. W., Kai, 黄. H., Xin, 夏. X., Rongbang, 杨. Y., Yulian, 何. H., Yuneng, 陈. C., Kunfeng, 陈. C., et al. (2025) · Chinese Journal of Lasers · doi:10.3788/cjl250914 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
High-bandwidth electro-optic modulator on a hybrid silicon–nitride–lithium-tantalate platform
Wang, Y., Chen, Y., Zhou, W., Sun, M., Wang, X., Zhang, X., Huang, J., Han, Q., Qu, M., Su, Y., et al. (2025) · Optics Letters · doi:10.1364/ol.573836 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationChengcong, 李. L., Shitikov, A. E., Tebeneva, T. S., Liu, J., Lobanov, V. E., Bilenko, I. A., & Chermoshentsev, D. A. (2025) · Optics Letters · doi:10.1364/ol.576109 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Mode-determined unidirectional phonon transducers for minimal frequency splitter
He, J., Zhang, S., Zheng, P., Fang, X., Sui, D., Yao, H., Ke, X., Ling, D., Sun, M., Huang, K., et al. (2025) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-025-66680-1 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationSong, Y., Li, Z., Zhu, X., Lippok, N., Erkintalo, M. J., & Lončar, M. (2026) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.aeb5758 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationMonolithic 3D integration of tantalum pentoxide nonlinear photonics
Brodnik, G. M., Spektor, G., Williams, L., Zang, J., Carollo, A. R., Dan, A., Black, J. A., Carlson, D. R., & Papp, S. B. (2026) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-026-10379-w · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Magneto-optic properties of the 128° Y-cut LiNbO3 by rotating its crystalline orientation
Jiao, X., Chen, W. M., & He, H. H. (2025) · Optics & Laser Technology · doi:10.1016/j.optlastec.2025.113399 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Han, 李. L., Yuqian, 张. Z., Mingqing, 左. Z., Dawei, 葛. G., Yingying, 汪. W., Wei, 丁. D., Dong, 王. W., Liuyan, 韩. H., & Dechao, 张. Z. (2025) · Acta Optica Sinica · doi:10.3788/aos250895 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Monolithic temperature‐insensitive high‐ Q Ta 2 O 5 microdisk resonator
Yang, Z., Zhang, Z., Cheng, P., Long, Z., Cheng, Q., Yang, J., Lin, Y., Fang, B., Zeng, Z., Zhou, Z., et al. (2025) · Nanophotonics · doi:10.1515/nanoph-2025-0485 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Jiang, R., Yang, X., Chen, J., Shen, S., Zhou, S. M., Tian, Y., & Wang, J. (2024) · Optics Express · doi:10.1364/oe.544536 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Spectroscopic ellipsometry of epitaxially stressed ferroelectric films
Nepomniashchaia, N., Pacherová, O., Kocourek, T., Dejneka, A., & Tyunina, M. (2025) · Journal of Applied Physics · doi:10.1063/5.0241939 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Bing, 常. C., Yiyang, 顾. G., Xinyue, 何. H., Yupei, 梁. L., Yaqian, 赵. Z., Weixun, 张. Z., Feilong, 董. D., Bowen, 李. L., Teng, 谭. T., & Baicheng, 姚. Y. (2024) · Laser & Optoelectronics Progress · doi:10.3788/lop241587 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Photonics Breakthroughs 2024: Narrow-Linewidth Lasers in the Visible and Near-Infrared
Prokoshin, A., Gehl, M. R., Madaras, S. E., Chow, W. W., & Wan, Y. (2025) · IEEE photonics journal · doi:10.1109/jphot.2025.3566268 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Narrow linewidth on-chip III-V/TFLT laser
Xue, S., Li, M., Zhang, Y., Hu, Q., Gao, Z., Bohora, S., Staffa, J., Lopez‐Rios, R., Bowers, J. E., & Lin, Q. (2025) · Optics Letters · doi:10.1364/ol.566695 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Doris, E. A., Blow, E. C., Umeda, H., Zhang, J., & Prucnal, P. R. (2025) · Optics Express · doi:10.1364/oe.572939 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationBashir, U., Anooz, S. B., Schmidbauer, M., Eng, L. M., Bickermann, M., & Ganschow, S. (2025) · Journal of Crystal Growth · doi:10.1016/j.jcrysgro.2025.128422 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Waveguide‐Integrated Broadband Pyroelectric Photodetector on Thin‐Film Lithium Tantalate
Lin, M., Ruan, Z., Chen, B., Wang, X., Xiang, H., Zhang, G., Chen, L., Guo, J., Daoxin Dai, A., & Liu, L. (2025) · Laser & Photonics Review · doi:10.1002/lpor.202502357 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationOctave-Spanning Supercontinuum Generation in Dispersion-Engineered Stacked Waveguides
Peng, H.-H., Wu, P.-H., Yan, D.-H., Li, G.-H., Li, S., Shih, M., Liao, B.-H., Hsiao, C., Chiu, Y., Chen, S., et al. (2025) · Journal of Lightwave Technology · doi:10.1109/jlt.2025.3638737 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
High-speed micro-ring modulator using ferroelectric PLZT for integrated photonics
Yin, Y., Yang, S., Yazdani, S. A., Sato, H., Lu, G.-W., & Yokoyama, S. (2025) · APL Photonics · doi:10.1063/5.0296778 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Communication-ready high-power soliton microcombs in highly dispersive Fabry–Perot microresonators
Cheng, Y., Xie, Z., Wang, Y., Nie, B., Jin, X., Luo, H., Wang, J., Zhou, Z., Gong, Q., Chang, L., et al. (2026) · Optica · doi:10.1364/optica.586478 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Copper damascene process-based high-performance thin-film lithium tantalate modulators
Lin, M., Li, Z., Kotz, A., Larocque, H., Kuznetsov, N., Sun, J., Zhang, Y., Zheng, S., Riemensberger, J., Koos, C. G., et al. (2026) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-026-69588-6 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationXiong, H., Yao, X.-M., Zhang, M., 姚庆瑞, Li, H., Yu, Z., Zhang, G., Liu, L., Shi, Y., Tsang, H. K., et al. (2026) · Light Science & Applications · doi:10.1038/s41377-026-02323-4 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Kim, G. I., Yim, J., & Bahl, G. (2026) · Optics Letters · doi:10.1364/ol.601610 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
High-speed Mach-Zehnder modulators based on nonlinear optics and complex band structures
Li, S., Luo, W., Li, Z., & Liu, J. (2025) · Physical Review Applied · doi:10.1103/f5v4-n5dw · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationThe electronic structures of low-lying electronic states of diatomic lithium phosphorus cation
Li, H., Yang, J.-X., Rang, Y., Li, H., Chang, Y.-F., Xie, Y., Chen, S., & Li, S. (2025) · Physica Scripta · doi:10.1088/1402-4896/adc843 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Li, L., Wang, P., Shi, L., Kong, W., & Chen, F. (2025) · Optical Materials · doi:10.1016/j.optmat.2025.117283 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Electro-optic modulation in amorphous silicon nitride photonic integrated platforms [Invited]
Lafforgue, C., & Brès, C. (2025) · Journal of the Optical Society of America B · doi:10.1364/josab.575387 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
- Authors
- Wang, C., Li, Z., Riemensberger, J., Lihachev, G., Churaev, M., Kao, W., Ji, X., Zhang, J., Blesin, T., Davydova, A., Chen, Y., Huang, K., Wang, X., Ou, X., & Kippenberg, T. J.
- Affiliations
- Chinese Academy of Sciences (CN)
- École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (CH)
- Corresponding author
- Ou, Xin
- Kippenberg, Tobias J.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Nature
- Published
- 2024-05-08
- Volume
- 629
- Issue
- 8013
- Pages
- 784-790
- ISSN
- 0028-0836 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-4687
- PMC
- PMC11111398
- OpenAlex
- W4396732481
- Cited by
- 248
- References
- 49
- Citations by year
- 2026: 106 · 2025: 105 · 2024: 35 · 2023: 2
- FWCI
- 39.00
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Nature (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Infoscience (Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, public-domain)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (cc-by)
- Funders
- École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne
- Schweizerischer Nationalfonds zur Förderung der Wissenschaftlichen Forschung (201923)
- National Natural Science Foundation of China (2019-23, 62293521)
- China Scholarship Council
- HORIZON EUROPE Framework Programme
- Shanghai Institute of Microsystem and Information Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences
- H2020 European Research Council (835329)
- HORIZON EUROPE European Innovation Council (101113260)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Atomic and Molecular Physics, and Optics › Photorefractive and Nonlinear Optics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Photonic and Optical Devices
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Atomic and Molecular Physics, and Optics › Optical and Acousto-Optic Technologies
- Keywords
- lithium tantalate, photonic integrated circuits, electro-optic modulator, Mach-Zehnder modulator, low-loss waveguides, high-volume manufacturing, soliton microcombs, birefringence, electro-optic bandwidth, lithium niobate comparison, telecom band
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review