Multiple paths to rumination within a network analytical framework
Open accessAbstract
Theories of rumination have proposed different psychological factors to place one at risk for repetitive negative thinking. A comprehensive empirical test that captures the most relevant contributors to rumination is lacking. Building on influential self-regulatory and metacognitive frameworks, we modeled how key constructs in this context relate to ruminative thinking. 498 participants completed online questionnaires including indicators of rumination, metacognition, promotion goal orientation, effortful control, and depression. We estimated regularized partial correlation networks to investigate unique associations between the different constructs and followed these analyses up with directed acyclic graphs to identify potential pathways towards rumination. Results demonstrated that: (1) both self-regulatory and metacognitive factors were directly linked to rumination, amongst these were (2) positive beliefs, negative beliefs about uncontrollability and harm, cognitive self-consciousness, depression, effortful control, perfectionism, and (lack of) cognitive confidence, and (3) we identified multiple directed pathways, suggesting three direct contributors to rumination while controlling for the influence of all other variables: diminished effortful control, positive beliefs, and cognitive self-consciousness. This study is the first to comprehensively assess metacognitive and self-regulatory frameworks of rumination in a data-driven manner. Our findings suggest that there are multiple pathways towards rumination, which should be incorporated in clinical case conceptualization of rumination and related disorders.
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Anxiety and rumination are dynamically and reciprocally related rather than strictly ordered.
“growing evidence suggests that anxiety and rumination are likely dynamically and reciprocally related (McLaughlin & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2011; Tamm et al., 2024) rather than strictly ordered.”
From Mindfulness and rumination: stress pathways for caregivers of persons living with dementia. (2026) · cites this paper as Tamm et al., 2024
The Discussion’s ‘Limitations and future directions’ section says the study focused on depression-related variables rather than anxiety and suggests examining worry in the context of anxiety in future work. The passages on reciprocal links and alternative directionality concern rumination and other cognitive variables, not anxiety and rumination. A search for anxiety–rumination reciprocity found no passage addressing the claimed relationship. (LLM, conf=0.76)
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Zwalmen, Y. V., Liebaert, E., Hoorelbeke, K., de Mévergnies, C. N., Baeken, C., Verhaeghe, N., & Koster, E. H. W. (2023) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1007/s11065-023-09581-8 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
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On the Use of Bayesian Artificial Intelligence for Hypothesis Generation in Psychiatry.
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Self-Regulation Through Rumination: Consequences and Mechanisms
Koster, E. H. W., Fang, L., & Marchetti, I. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-1236-0_24 · Cited by 6 · cited 1× · see citing works
“12–14,19 , as well as In addition to the direct links with rumination mentioned above, we observed several indirect links within the network.”
Metacognition and mental regulation.
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Flagged first, then by citations
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Evaluating Theories of Repetitive Negative Thinking: Replication and Extension
Tamm, G., Koster, E. H. W., & Hoorelbeke, K. (2024) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-024-10546-1 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Even though the findings in Tamm et al. (2024) were stable and accurate according to the bootstrap results, it remains unknown if the results could be replicated in an independent sample.”
InfluentialKornacka, M., Barnes, S., Para, M., Skorupski, M. S., Kostrzewa, Z., & Szastok, M. (2025) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2025.113277 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Stuck in thought: Temporal interplay between cognitive building blocks of rumination
Tamm, G., Koster, E. H. W., Henry, T. R., & Hoorelbeke, K. (2025) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2025.104788 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Human regulatory systems in the age of abundance: A predictive processing perspective
Muzik, O., & Diwadkar, V. A. (2025) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.15302 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“147,152”
Barnes, S., Szastok, M., Para, M., Morawiec, F., Grzeszczuk, M., Wójcik, S., Karpowicz, B., Zinevych, P., Jaskulska, A., Kopeć, W., et al. (2025) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/66067 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Similarly, the study aims to assess the EMI in terms of similar mediation effects of beliefs about rumination [63].”
Metabeliefs about worry, cognitive fusion, and acceptance: associations and mediations analysis
Sánchez-Escamilla, F., Delgado, M. R., Jiménez-Ros, A. M., & Nieto, M. Á. P. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1639105 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Skorupski, M. S., Krejtz, I., Barnes, S., Baeyens, C., Atzeni, T., & Kornacka, M. (2026) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-026-42261-0 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Although the role of metacognition has been primarily explored in the field of RNT (e.g. 33,44,80 , the present study provides additional evidence in favor of examining metacognition in other types of TUT as well, particularly while exploring TUT as avoidance strategy 45,48 .”
Gonzales, C. B. A., Rosales, M. G., Mista, C., Arévalo, D. A. (., Tabernig, C. B., & Manresa, J. A. B. (2026) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2026.03.020 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Sanders, M., Pacheco-Romero, A. M., Koster, E. H. W., Seidler, D. A., Drake, C. E., & Hoorelbeke, K. (2026) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-026-10772-9 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Individual Rumination in Adult Cancer Care: A Concept Analysis
Cao, J., & Üzar‐Özçetin, Y. S. (2025) · Seminars in Oncology Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.soncn.2024.151802 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Mindfulness and rumination: stress pathways for caregivers of persons living with dementia.
Savla, J., Mansoor, M., Kim, N., Hagemann, L., Luci, K., & Sapra, M. (2026) · The Gerontologist · doi:10.1093/geront/gnag103
“However, growing evidence suggests that anxiety and rumination are likely dynamically and reciprocally related (McLaughlin & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2011; Tamm et al., 2024) rather than strictly ordered.”
High-Frequency Cognitive Control Training for Depression: Case Report
Zwalmen, Y. V., Hoorelbeke, K., Demeester, D., & Koster, E. H. W. (2024) · JMIR Formative Research · doi:10.2196/56598
Tamm, G., Roos, R., Palu-Laeks, M., Hoorelbeke, K., & Cowan, N. (2025) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-6558445/v1
Breaking the Chain: A Computational Approach to Identify Optimal Treatment Strategies for Rumination
Hoorelbeke, K., Henry, T. R., Tamm, G., & Koster, E. H. W. (2026) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2026.05.002 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Kowalski, J., Dąbkowska, M., Aleksandrowicz, A., Jarkiewicz, M., Larøi, F., & Gawęda, Ł. (2025) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbaf208
Rumination reconsidered: a dynamic interpersonal model
Sels, L., Hoorelbeke, K., & Koster, E. H. W. (2026) · Nature Mental Health · doi:10.1038/s44220-026-00618-4 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Connecting internalizing complaints and motivations for Instagram Use: A Bayesian network approach
Maerevoet, M., Hoorelbeke, K., Bosch, R. D., de Putte, E. V., & Koster, E. H. W. (2026) · Computers in Human Behavior Reports · doi:10.1016/j.chbr.2026.101039
Luo, Y., Sun, Y., Li, W., Yang, W., Zhang, A., & Li, H. (2026) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-9262747/v1
Advances in the Mechanisms and Interventions of Somatization in Depression
杨, 芯. (2026) · Advances in Clinical Medicine · doi:10.12677/acm.2026.1641647
Zhang, S., Ma, L., Sun, J., Chen, Y., He, Y., Long, Q., Jiao, B., Huang, H., Mo, L., & Lin, J. (2026) · Brain Structure and Function · doi:10.1007/s00429-026-03144-2
“Rumination, which is marked by a passive, self-referential, and repetitive pattern of negative thought, continues to be a common risk factor and clinical symptom associated with StD and MDD (Song et al. 2022; Tamm et al. 2024).”
Yuanyuan, Z., Chen, Z., Qingzi, Z., Niu, L., Chen, X., Dai, H., Bihua, Z., Peng, X., & Zhang, R. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1900459
“The current fi ndings support recently proposed models of rumination (15, 24, 39).”
Chiorri, C., Marchetti, I., Fiabane, E., Caselli, G., Mor, N., & Koster, E. H. W. (2026) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223891.2026.2726459
- Authors
- Tamm, G., Koster, E. H. W., & Hoorelbeke, K.
- Affiliations
- Ghent University (BE)
- Corresponding author
- Tamm, Gerly
- Venue
- Scientific Reports
- Published
- 2024-05-13
- Volume
- 14
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 10874-10874
- ISSN
- 2045-2322 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC11091050
- OpenAlex
- W4396871319
- Cited by
- 22
- References
- 91
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 2
- FWCI
- 8.95
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- Scientific Reports (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Ghent University Academic Bibliography (Ghent University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- Fonds Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (12J9722N)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Mental Health Research Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Mind wandering and attention
- Keywords
- rumination, repetitive negative thinking, metacognition, self-regulation, effortful control, depression, perfectionism, cognitive self-consciousness, cognitive confidence, directed acyclic graphs, partial correlation networks
- MeSH terms
- Metacognition, Rumination, Cognitive, Adolescent, Adult, Depression, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Surveys and Questionnaires, Thinking, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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