Attitude and Pupil Size
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Numerous studies in various fields have found pupillometry to be useful to measure cognitive load.
“Numerous studies in various fields have also found pupillometry to be useful to measure cognitive load (Beatty 1982;Hess 1965;Hess and Polt 1964;Kahneman and Beatty 1966;Klingner et al. 2008Klingner et al. , 2011;;Paas et al. 2003;Szulewski et al. 2014).”
From Measuring physician cognitive load: validity evidence for a physiologic and a psychometric tool (2017) · cites this paper as Hess 1965
Hess (1965) showed that pupil size increased when arithmetic problems were presented to participants, peaked when the answer was given and then dropped off again.
“In an early experiment, Hess (1965) showed that pupil size increased when arithmetic problems were presented to participants, peaked when the answer was given and then dropped off again.”
From Measuring physician cognitive load: validity evidence for a physiologic and a psychometric tool (2017) · cites this paper as Hess 1965
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(2001) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511546396 · Cited by 4,482 · see citing works
Gergen, K. J. (1973) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0034436 · Cited by 1,845 · see citing works
“Schachter's (1970) research on emotional states appears to have a strong physiological basis, as does Hess's (1965) work on affect and pupillary constriction.”
BackgroundPupil Diameter and Load on Memory
Kahneman, D., & Beatty, J. (1966) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.154.3756.1583 · Cited by 1,617 · see citing works
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“Furthermore, large eyes may be more effective than other neonate cues, such as round cheeks, in conveying the desirable qualities of youthfulness (Terry, 1977) because a target's eyes draw a disproportionate amount of attention during facial scanning (Hess, 1965; McKelvie, 1976).”
BackgroundCunningham, M. R. (1986) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.50.5.925 · Cited by 757 · see citing works
“Finally, dilated pupils have been found to elicit increased attractiveness ratings (Hess, 1965).”
BackgroundIn Google We Trust: Users’ Decisions on Rank, Position, and Relevance
Pan, B., Hembrooke, H., Joachims, T., Lorigo, L., Gay, G., & Granka, L. (2007) · Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication · doi:10.1111/j.1083-6101.2007.00351.x · Cited by 715 · see citing works
“Hence, both fixation and pupil dilation measures are frequently used as corroborating measures of cognitive workload (Hess, 1965; Just & Carpenter, 1980; Kahneman, 1973).”
MethodA new look at the new look: Perceptual defense and vigilance.
Erdelyi, M. H. (1974) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0035852 · Cited by 654 · see citing works
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The bogus pipeline: A new paradigm for measuring affect and attitude.
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Beliefs and Subdoxastic States
Stich, S. P. (1978) · Philosophy of Science · doi:10.1086/288832 · Cited by 503 · see citing works
“Hess ([8]; see also [9]) presented male subjects with a pair of almost identical photos of a girl.”
BackgroundInferring psychological significance from physiological signals.
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Physiological metrics of mental workload: A review of recent progress
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Pupillary and Cardiac Activity During Visual Attention
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Psychological significance of pupillary movements.
Goldwater, B. C. (1972) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/h0032456 · Cited by 258 · see citing works
Pupil Dilation Reflects the Creation and Retrieval of Memories
Goldinger, S. D., & Papesh, M. H. (2012) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721412436811 · Cited by 255 · see citing works
“Based on this work, Hess concluded that the component of the pupil reflex reflecting mental activity indexed motivation, interest, and “emotionality” (Hess, 1965, p. 46).”
The Experimental Analysis of Social Performance
Argyle, M., & Kendon, A. (1967) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60342-1 · Cited by 229 · see citing works
The coupling of emotion and cognition in the eye: introducing the pupil old/new effect.
Võ, M., Jacobs, A., Kuchinke, L., Hofmann, M., Conrad, M., Schacht, A., & Hutzler, F. (2007) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2007.00606.x · Cited by 228 · see citing works
“Early works by Hess (1965) reported pupil dilations when subjects looked at pictures of positive valence and pupil constrictions when they looked at pictures of negative valence (see alsoMudd, Conway, & Schindler, 1990).”
BackgroundPupillary responses during lexical decisions vary with word frequency but not emotional valence
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“In an early study, Hess (1965) reported pupil dilations when looking at positive pictures and pupil constrictions for negative material (also see Mudd et al., 1990).”
BackgroundPupillary changes in two memory tasks
Beatty, J., & Kahneman, D. J. (1966) · Psychonomic Science · doi:10.3758/bf03328444 · Cited by 216 · see citing works
“Hess & Polt (1964) had shown that the peak pupillary dilation obtained during the solution of an arithmetic problem is related to the difficulty of the problem.”
BackgroundInfluentialOn the Scope and Methods of Cross-Cultural Research
Frijda, N., & Jahoda, G. (1966) · International Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00207596608247118 · Cited by 226 · see citing works
Pupil Size as a Measure of Arousal during Information Processing
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The Pupillary Response in Cognitive Psychophysiology and Schizophreniaa
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“In dealing with the complexities of stimulus qualities which affect pupil diameter, it is worthwhile to take a brief look at one of the major controversies in pupillary research -- the statements of Hess and colleagues (Hess & Polt, 1960; Hess, 1964) that positive affect is”
BackgroundEthnic identification and preference: A review.
Brand, E. S., Ruiz, R. A., & Padilla, A. M. (1974) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/h0037266 · Cited by 200 · see citing works
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Validity, reliability, and applicability of psychophysiological techniques in marketing research
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Landscape evaluaton: a research project in East Sussex
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A review of eye-tracking applications as tools for training
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“Inferring cognitive load from pupil responses is known as ‘‘pupillometrics,’’ a term invented by Hess (1965) to describe a research field (started in 1960) encompassing the effects of psychological influences, perceptual processes, and mental activities upon the pupil size.”
BackgroundPupillary response as a general measure of activation
Nunnally, J. C., Knott, P. D., Duchnowski, A. J., et al. (1967) · Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/bf03210310 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
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Attitudes and cognitive response: An electrophysiological approach.
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Pupil size changes during recognition memory
Otero, S. C., Weekes, B., & Hutton, S. B. (2011) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2011.01217.x · Cited by 132 · see citing works
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Incentive effects and pupillary changes in association learning.
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Human amygdala sensitivity to the pupil size of others
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“Pupil dilation has been interpreted as a general indicator of increased vigilance, arousal, and/or interest ( Hess 1965; Steinhauer et al. 2004), indexing behavioral responses as disparate as political interests, hunger, cognitive load, and attraction (Hess 1965; Steinhauer et al. 2004).”
BackgroundThe pupil's response to affective pictures: Role of image duration, habituation, and viewing mode
Snowden, R. J., O'Farrell, K. R., Burley, D. T., Erichsen, J. T., Newton, N. V., & Gray, N. S. (2016) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.12668 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
“Previous experiments looking at the effects of emotional content on pupil responses (e.g., Bradley et al., 2008; Hess, 1965) have presented stimuli for a relatively long period of time (many seconds).”
The pupillary response as an indicator of arousal and cognition
Stanners, R. F., Coulter, M., Sweet, A. W., & Murphy, P. (1979) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/bf00994048 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
“Hess (1965) proposed a biphasic hypothesis of pupiltary activity in which positive affect was indicated by pupil dilation and negative affect was signaled by pupillary constriction. This type of pupillary action went very well with an arousal interpretation since affect states have meaningful positive and negative val…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialPupilRec: Leveraging Pupil Morphology for Recommending on Smartphones
Shen, X., Jiang, H., Liu, D., et al. (2022) · IEEE Internet of Things Journal · doi:10.1109/jiot.2022.3181607 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
“Researches reported that people’s pupils are prone to uncon-sciously 1) dilate when watching something interesting, aiming to acquire more information and 2) not dilate or even shrink when viewing unattractive contents, tending to impede the access to information [23], [24].”
BackgroundMeasuring physician cognitive load: validity evidence for a physiologic and a psychometric tool
Szulewski, A., Gegenfurtner, A., Howes, D. W., Sivilotti, M. L. A., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2017) · Advances in Health Sciences Education · doi:10.1007/s10459-016-9725-2 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
“Numerous studies in various fields have also found pupillometry to be useful to measure cognitive load (Beatty 1982; Hess 1965; Hess and Polt 1964; Kahneman and Beatty 1966; Klingner et al. 2008, 2011; Paas et al. 2003; Szulewski et al. 2014).”
BackgroundPupillary responses in art appreciation: Effects of aesthetic emotions.
Kuchinke, L., Trapp, S., Jacobs, A. M., & Leder, H. (2009) · Psychology of Aesthetics Creativity and the Arts · doi:10.1037/a0014464 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
“The peak pupil dilation has been found to vary with the amount of cognitive load associated with a memory task (Beatty & Kahneman, 1966) or emotional processing (Hess, 1965; Janisse, 1974).”
BackgroundPUPIL SIZE, AFFECT AND EXPOSURE FREQUENCY
Janisse, M. P. (1974) · Social Behavior and Personality An International Journal · doi:10.2224/sbp.1974.2.2.125 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Perceptual Narrowing in Novice Divers
Weltman, G., & Egstrom, G. H. (1966) · Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1177/001872086600800604 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
“Increased pupil size has also been reported during emotional states (Hess, 1965).”
BackgroundEffects of verbalization and incentive on the pupil response to mental activity.
Kahneman, D. J., Peavler, W. S., & Onuska, L. A. (1968) · Canadian Journal of Psychology/Revue Canadienne de Psychologie · doi:10.1037/h0082759 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Pupillometry: A Survey of Sources of Variation
Tryon, W. W. (1975) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1975.tb03068.x · Cited by 78 · see citing works
The effect of word abstractness and pleasantness on pupil size during an imagery task
Paivio, A., & Simpson, H. M. (1966) · Psychonomic Science · doi:10.3758/bf03328277 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
“Hess and his co-workers found, specifically, that pupillary reactions are affected by the interest value of visual stimuli (Hess & Polt, 1960; Hess, Seltzer, & Shlien, 1965), difficulty of mental arithmetic problems (Hess & Polt, 1964), and pleasantness of stimuli (Hess, 1965).”
BackgroundTombs, S., & SILVERMAN, I. W. (2004) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2004.05.001 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Effects of consensual validation and invalidation on attraction as a function of verifiability
Byrne, D., Nelson, D. A., & Reeves, K. (1966) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-1031(66)90009-6 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
The role of pupil size in communication. Is there room for learning?
Kret, M. E. (2018) · Cognition and Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2017.1370417 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
“Two line-drawings of a happy and an angry face were taken from Hess (1965) and printed out.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialPsychophysiological Assessment of Prejudice: Past Research, Current Status, and Future Directions
Guglielmi, R. (1999) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0302_3 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Patterns of Gazing in Orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus)
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“The eyes themselves may also be a social signal (Gómez, 1996), including pupil size and changes in pupil size (Hess, 1965; Hindmarch, 1973; Gregory and Hopkins, 1974).”
BackgroundAffective responses as guides to category-based inferences
Niedenthal, P. M., & Cantor, N. L. (1986) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/bf00992317 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
“In addition, individuals make positive attributions about people whose pupils are dilated and negative attributions about people whose pupils are constricted, presumably without knowing that they are doing so (Flade & Lindner, 1979; Hess, 1965, 1975; Hicks, Williams, & Ferrante, 1979a, 1979b; Stass & Willis, 1967; Tar…”
BackgroundPupil size and affect: A critical review of the literature since 1960.
Janisse, M. P. (1973) · The Canadian Psychologist · doi:10.1037/h0082230 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Can pupil size be measured to assess design products?
Ho, C.-H., & Lu, Y.-N. (2014) · International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics · doi:10.1016/j.ergon.2014.01.009 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Both a Gauge and a Filter: Cognitive Modulations of Pupil Size
Ebitz, R. B., & Moore, T. (2019) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2018.01190 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“That is, (1) it is modulated by the same cognitive and presaccadic processes involved in selective visual attention (13–15, 29, 47, 48) and (2) it is modulated by the same neural perturbations that cause other correlates of selective visual attention, such as changes in extrastriate cortex (13, 28).”
BackgroundDilute Acid Hydrolysis of Softwoods
Nguyen, Q. A., Tucker, M. P., Keller, F. A., et al. (1999) · Humana Press eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4612-1604-9_13 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Method of Depression Classification Based on Behavioral and Physiological Signals of Eye Movement
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THE HESS PUPIL DILATION FINDINGS: SEX OR NOVELTY?
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Emotional words impact the mind but not the body: evidence from pupillary responses.
Bayer, M., Sommer, W., & Schacht, A. (2011) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2011.01219.x · Cited by 67 · see citing works
“In the 1960s, the pupil was (re)discovered as a noninvasive window to brain activity, at first with respect to emotional processing (Hess, 1965; Hess & Polt, 1960), and, shortly thereafter, cognitive load (Kahneman & Beatty, 1966).”
Motivation Diagnosis in Intelligent Tutoring Systems
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Pupillary Contagion in Infancy: Evidence for Spontaneous Transfer of Arousal
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“Classic research showing that pupils dilate when people view a person of the opposite sex whose pupils are large was initially interpreted as an arousal response related to perceived attractiveness (Simms, 1967), because faces with larger pupils were also rated as more attractive (Hess, 1965).”
BackgroundA Review of Methods Utilized in Measuring Affect, Feelings, and Emotion in Advertising
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Eye contact, pupil dilation, and personal preference
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“Hess (1965) reported that an increase in pupil size was related to interest in a viewed object.”
BackgroundLeft and Right in Science and Art
Gross, C. G., & Bornstein, M. H. (1978) · Leonardo · doi:10.2307/1573500 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
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“fear and pain)[28] cause pupillary dilation, as do certain drugs (e.”
Pupil responses to grammatical complexity of sentences
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When viewing variations in paintings by Mondrian, aesthetic preferences correlate with pupil size.
Johnson, M., Muday, J. A., & Schirillo, J. A. (2010) · Psychology of Aesthetics Creativity and the Arts · doi:10.1037/a0018155 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“Picture 5 in Figure 3) while eliminating Hess’s (1965, 1972) confound of fluctuations in luminance and contrast across images. Our design allowed us to observe how an unconscious measure, pupil size, varies as a function of the differences in conscious verbal reports of pleasant and less pleasant images. Thus, our fin…”
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Interactive effects of eye contact and verbal content on interpersonal attraction in dyads.
Scherwitz, L. W., & Helmreich, R. L. (1973) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0034270 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Simms, T. M. (1967) · Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/bf03210265 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
The fundamentals of eye tracking part 2: From research question to operationalization
Hooge, I. T. C., Nuthmann, A., Nyström, M., Niehorster, D. C., Holleman, G. A., Andersson, R., & Hessels, R. S. (2025) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-024-02590-2 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“…in the assessment of various cognitive states (Strauch et al., 2022; Papesh & Goldinger, 2024), includ-123 ing workload (Pfleging et al., 2016; Hess, 1965), attention (Mathôt et al., 2013; Binda et al., 2013) mental fatigue (Bafna & Hansen, 2021), and arousal (Bradshaw, 1967; Bradley et al.,…”
The question of stimulus content and pupil size
Peavler, W. S., & McLaughlin, J. P. (1967) · Psychonomic Science · doi:10.3758/bf03331723 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“Other than the work of Hess (1965), this writer knows of no evidence for the aversion-constriction hypothesis.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialPupil Dilation: What Does It Measure?
Blackwell, R. D., Hensel, J. S., & Sternthal, B. (1970) · Journal of Advertising Research · doi:10.1080/00218499.1970.12520064 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
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“Hovewer, besides of this association, pupil size responds to a relatively broad number of stimulate reaching from intake of drugs [69, 70] to such internal states as, e.g., interest and arousal [71, 72].”
BackgroundChanges of Pupil Size and Rehearsal Strategies in a Short-Term Memory Task
Kahneman, D. J., & Wright, P. (1971) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/14640747108400239 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
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Pupillometric assessment of arousal to sexual stimuli: Novelty effects or preference?
Garrett, J. C., Harrison, D. W., & Kelly, P. L. (1989) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/bf01543194 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“In a review article, Hess (1965) presented his attraction-dilation, aversion-constriction hypothesis suggesting a continuum of responses that ranged from extreme dilation for interesting or pleasing stimuli to extreme constriction for unpleasant or distastefu material.”
BackgroundMethodApplying Psychophysiological Measures to Marketing and Advertising Research Problems
Stewart, D. W., & Furse, D. H. (2012) · Current Issues and Research in Advertising · doi:10.1080/01633392.1982.10505319 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Gaze awareness in conversational agents
Ishii, R., Nakano, Y., & Nishida, T. (2013) · ACM Transactions on Interactive Intelligent Systems · doi:10.1145/2499474.2499480 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
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“The relationship between cognitive load and pupil size variation has been verified in different scenarios (Hess and Polt 1964; Hess 1965; Kahneman and Beatty 1966; Paivio and Simpson 1966; Simpson and Paivio 1966; Bradshaw 1968; Wright and Kahneman 1971; Libby et al. 1973; Rayner and Pollatsek…”
BackgroundMethodEffects on pupil size of manual and verbal indicators of cognitive task fulfillment
Simpson, H. M., & Paivio, A. (1968) · Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/bf03212726 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Cosmetics considered in the context of physical attractiveness: a review
Graham, J. A., & JOUHAR, A. J. (1980) · International Journal of Cosmetic Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-2494.1980.tb00237.x · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Towards tutoring systems that detect students' motivation: an investigation
de Vicente, Á. (2003) · ERA · Cited by 41 · see citing works
The Effect of Voice Volume on the Perception of Personality
Page, R. A., & Balloun, J. L. (1978) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.1978.9924091 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Sensory and motor mechanisms interact to control amplitude of pupil noise
Usui, S., & STARK, L. W. (1978) · Vision Research · doi:10.1016/0042-6989(78)90065-2 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“…almost twenty years ago and considerable experimental, theoretical and modelling studies have since been accomplished (Stark, 1959; Bouma, 1965; Hess, 1965; Loewenfeld, 1966; Stanten and Stark, 1966; Hansmann et al., 1974; Semmlow et al., 1975) in extending the earlier pupillary noise…”
BackgroundMental Fatigue Monitoring Using a Wearable Transparent Eye Detection System
Sampei, K., Ogawa, M., Torres, C. C. C., Sato, M., & Miki, N. (2016) · Micromachines · doi:10.3390/mi7020020 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“It is often said that the eye is a window to the soul and it is true that we judge others’ physical and mental states from their appearances, especially around the eyes [12–14].”
Background
- Authors
- Hess, E. H.
- Corresponding author
- Hess, Eckhard H.
- Venue
- Scientific American
- Published
- 1965-04
- Volume
- 212
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 46-54
- ISSN
- 0036-8733 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1979675537
- Cited by
- 515
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 31 · 2021: 19 · 2020: 16 · 2019: 16 · 2018: 34 · 2017: 14 · 2016: 16 · 2015: 17 · 2014: 12 · 2013: 9 · 2012: 12
- FWCI
- 29.33
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Scientific American (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Gaze Tracking and Assistive Technology
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Visual perception and processing mechanisms
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
- Keywords
- pupil size, miosis, pupil dilation, pupil reflex
- MeSH terms
- Attitude, Humans, Psychophysiology, Pupil
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