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Variability of Stuttering: Behavior and Impact
Open accessAbstract
Purpose: It has long been known that stuttering behaviors vary across time and situation. Preliminary evidence suggests that this variability negatively affects people who stutter and that stuttering behaviors are more variable than adverse impact associated with stuttering. More information is needed to determine how variability affects people who stutter and what the clinical and research implications of variability may be. Method: Two hundred and four adults who stutter participated in a mixed-methods study exploring (a) how variability of stuttering affects people who stutter in comparison to other aspects of the condition and (b) which aspects of the overall experience of stuttering are variable. Results: Analyses indicated that variability is very commonly experienced by people who stutter and that it is among the most frustrating aspects of the condition. Qualitative analyses revealed that variability is experienced in all aspects of the stuttering condition, including the observable behavior other affective, behavioral, and cognitive reactions; and the adverse impact of stuttering. Notable individual differences were found in terms of which specific aspects of the condition were more variable for different respondents. Overall, analyses revealed that the variability of different aspects of stuttering can be viewed in a hierarchy from most variable to least variable: more external aspects (e.g., frequency, duration), more internal aspects (e.g., covert behaviors, physical tension), and cognitive–affective experiences (e.g., negative thoughts, feelings, and self-image). Discussion: These findings suggest that variability is a common and burdensome aspect of the experience of stuttering and underscore the importance of considering variability in stuttering behavior, reactions, and impact in research, assessment, and treatment for adults who stutter.
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“Patterns and frequency of stuttering differ not only across individuals but also within the same speaker over time and in response to changing contexts, such as task, setting, or conversational partner [100, 109].”
From Disability-First AI Dataset Annotation: Co-designing Stuttered Speech Annotation Guidelines with People Who Stutter (2026) · cites this paper as [100]
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Metadata
- Authors
- Tichenor, S. E., & Yaruss, J. S.
- Affiliations
- Michigan State University (US)
- Venue
- American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology
- Published
- 2021-01-27
- Volume
- 30
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 75-88
- ISSN
- 1058-0360 (ISSN-L)
- 1558-9110
- PMC
- PMC8740569
- OpenAlex
- W3099124743
- Cited by
- 105
- References
- 67
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 25 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 5
- FWCI
- 4.30
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (R01DC018795)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Stuttering Research and Treatment
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Obsessive-Compulsive Spectrum Disorders
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › Speech and Hearing › Voice and Speech Disorders
- Keywords
- stuttering, frustration, physical tension, negative self-concept, individual differences, adults who stutter
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Emotions, Humans, Individuality, Research Design, Self Concept, Stuttering
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