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Cited by 321Dementia and Cognitive Impairment ResearchAging and Gerontology ResearchCognitive Abilities and Testing

What cognitive changes can be expected with normal ageing?

Christensen, Helen·2001·Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry
DOI 10.1046/j.1440-1614.2001.00966.x
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Abstract

BACKGROUND: This paper briefly summarizes recent evidence on the nature of cognitive decline, the variability in individual responses to ageing, and risk factors known to affect the rate of cognitive decline. METHOD: Data from the Canberra Longitudinal Study were used to examine the course and diversity of cognitive decline. The sample consisted of 887 participants aged 70-93 years, who were examined in 1991 and followed up in 1994 and 1998. Data summarizing significant risk factors for cognitive decline were based on a review of 34 studies that examined the following predictors: education, the APOE epsilon4 allele, health, activity and blood pressure. RESULTS: Using data from participants living in the community, there is evidence that cognitive speed and memory performance decline with age, but that crystallized abilities remain largely intact in those who survive for long-term follow-up. Variability in test scores for memory and speed increases with age. There is evidence that poor health, fewer years of education, lower activity, the presence of the APOE epsilon4 allele, and blood pressure predict faster cognitive decline. CONCLUSIONS: The diversity in cognitive ageing suggests that more than one process may be operating to produce the observed cognitive outcomes. Education, good health, absence of the APOE epsilon4 allele, and activity may be protective of cognitive decline. Preventative strategies for sustaining high intellectual performance in later life may therefore be possible. These findings also speak to the need to extend analysis beyond examining mean changes in cognitive performance to an analysis based on individual differences in change.

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  • Crystallised cognitive abilities, such as those assessed in the measure of IQ, may be less associated with cognitive ageing, whereas fluid cognitive domains such as executive functions and memory may be more affected by ageing.

    “It has been suggested that crystallised cognitive abilities, such as those assessed in the measure of IQ may be less associated with cognitive ageing, whereas fluid cognitive domains such as executive functions and memory may be more affected by ageing”

    From Living alone and cognitive function in later life (2019) · cites this paper as Christensen, 2001

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Authors
Christensen, H.
Affiliations
Australian National University (AU)
Corresponding author
Christensen, Helen
ORCID
Christensen, Helen
Venue
Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry
Publisher
SAGE Publications
Published
2001-12
Volume
35
Issue
6
Pages
768-775
ISSN
  • 0004-8674 (ISSN-L)
  • 1440-1614
DOI
10.1046/j.1440-1614.2001.00966.x
OpenAlex
W2107369063
Cited by
321
References
61
Citations by year
2026: 2 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 20 · 2018: 22 · 2017: 11 · 2016: 12 · 2015: 16 · 2014: 19 · 2013: 15 · 2012: 25
FWCI
0.79
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Licence
journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations
  • Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • ANU Open Research (Australian National University) (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
Keywords
normal aging, cognitive decline, memory decline, cognitive speed, APOE ε4, educational attainment, health status, physical activity, blood pressure, risk factors for cognitive decline, older adults
MeSH terms
Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Aging, Cognition Disorders, Humans, Risk Factors

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