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Ohno's dilemma: Evolution of new genes under continuous selection
Open accessAbstract
New genes with novel functions arise by duplication and divergence, but the process poses a problem. After duplication, an extra gene copy must rise to sufficiently high frequency in the population and remain free of common inactivating lesions long enough to acquire the rare mutations that provide a new selectable function. Maintaining a duplicated gene by selection for the original function would restrict the freedom to diverge. (We refer to this problem as Ohno's dilemma). A model is described by which selection continuously favors both maintenance of the duplicate copy and divergence of that copy from the parent gene. Before duplication, the original gene has a trace side activity (the innovation) in addition to its original function. When an altered ecological niche makes the minor innovation valuable, selection favors increases in its level (the amplification), which is most frequently conferred by increased dosage of the parent gene. Selection for the amplified minor function maintains the extra copies and raises the frequency of the amplification in the population. The same selection favors mutational improvement of any of the extra copies, which are not constrained to maintain their original function (the divergence). The rate of mutations (per genome) that improve the new function is increased by the multiplicity of target copies within a genome. Improvement of some copies relaxes selection on others and allows their loss by mutation (becoming pseudogenes). Ultimately one of the extra copies is able to provide all of the new activity.
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“As such, ALE studies highlight that duplications and large scale genomic variations, although they can lead to significant issues such as genomic instability [152], play a major role in e.g. yeast evolution; this is also indicated by data on wine yeasts, galactose utilization, comparative genomics and drug resistance [115,153-156].”
From Adaptive laboratory evolution—Principles and applications for biotechnology (2013) · cites this paper as [115]
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“[28] and others argue that Ohno’s model poses a dilemma, because it requires that the duplicated copy of the gene, which incurs an energetic cost, must be retained within a population prior to acquiring the mutations that confer the new activity.”
BackgroundEvidence for the fixation of gene duplications by positive selection in DrosophilaPreprint
Cardoso-Moreira, M., Arguello, J. R., Gottipati, S., Harshman, L. G., Grenier, J. K., & Clark, A. G. (2016) · Genome Research · doi:10.1101/gr.199323.115 · Cited by 71
“Selection for increased dosage does not necessarily have to be for the gene’s primary activity; it could also be for trace side activity that becomes beneficial after an environmental change (Bergthorsson et al. 2007).”
BackgroundBershtein, S., & Tawfik, D. S. (2008) · Molecular Biology and Evolution · doi:10.1093/molbev/msn174 · Cited by 69
“Duplication is known to occur under such selection pressures and under this scenario, both duplicates will be maintained under selection to maintain both the primary function and the minor one (Bergthorsson et al. 2007).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThe Ingenuity of Bacterial Genomes
Kirchberger, P. C., Schmidt, M. L., & Ochman, H. (2020) · Annual Review of Microbiology · doi:10.1146/annurev-micro-020518-115822 · Cited by 68
Regulation of Clostridium difficile spore germination by the CspA pseudoprotease domain
Kevorkian, Y. L., Shirley, D. J., & Shen, A. (2015) · Biochimie · doi:10.1016/j.biochi.2015.07.023 · Cited by 67
“Since copy number variation frequently indicates that genes are under selective pressure [68, 75], the high frequency of csp gene duplications in Peptostreptococcaceae family members strongly suggests that unknown selective pressures are driving the diversification of these loci.”
BackgroundKujala, K., Drake, H. L., & Horn, M. A. (2009) · Applied and Environmental Microbiology · doi:10.1128/aem.00254-09 · Cited by 67
“, in species in which multiple gene copies are present) rather than by horizontal gene transfer (1).”
BackgroundPatterns and Evolutionary Consequences of Pleiotropy
Zhang, J. (2023) · Annual Review of Ecology Evolution and Systematics · doi:10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-022323-083451 · Cited by 71
Escape from Adaptive Conflict follows from weak functional trade-offs and mutational robustness
Sikosek, T., Chan, H. S., & Bornberg‐Bauer, E. (2012) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1115620109 · Cited by 61
“Future work will need to address other factors such as gene expression (61), the interactions within gene regulatory (62) and metabolic networks (63), the possibility of multiple duplications of the same gene in rapid succession (40), and cases of smaller μN (46).”
BackgroundBarsottini, M. R. D. O., de Oliveira, J. F., Adamóski, D., Teixeira, P. J. P. L., do Prado, P. F. V., Tiezzi, H. D. O., Sforça, M. L., Cassago, A., Portugal, R. V., de Oliveira, P. S. L., et al. (2013) · Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions · doi:10.1094/mpmi-05-13-0148-r · Cited by 60
“Different genetic evolutionary models predict an expansion in a gene’s copy 339 number before their specialization or the rise of new functions, also accounting for an overlap of functions 340 due to a momentary intermediate state of specialization (Bergthorsson et al. 2007).”
BackgroundHellgren, O., & Ekblom, R. (2010) · Immunome Research · doi:10.1186/1745-7580-6-3 · Cited by 63
Functional innovation through new genes as a general evolutionary process
Xia, S., Chen, J., Arsala, D., Emerson, J. J., & Long, M. (2025) · Nature Genetics · doi:10.1038/s41588-024-02059-0 · Cited by 71
Bunsupa, S., Hanada, K., Maruyama, A., Aoyagi, K., Komatsu, K., Ueno, H., Yamashita, M., Sasaki, R., Oikawa, A., Saito, K., et al. (2016) · PLANT PHYSIOLOGY · doi:10.1104/pp.16.00639 · Cited by 57
“This evolutionary process has been proposed as the innovation, amplification, and divergence model (Bergthorsson et al., 2007).”
BackgroundAccelerating pathway evolution by increasing the gene dosage of chromosomal segments
Tumen-Velasquez, M. P., Johnson, C. W., Ahmed, A. R., Dominick, G., Fulk, E. M., Khanna, P., Lee, S. A., Schmidt, A. L., Linger, J. G., Eiteman, M. A., et al. (2018) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1803745115 · Cited by 56
“During continued selection for Gua growth, gcoAB copies are expected to diverge (5).”
BackgroundOrigin and Functional Diversification of an Amphibian Defense Peptide Arsenal
Roelants, K., Fry, B. G., Ye, L., Stijlemans, B., Brys, L., Kok, P. J. R., Clynen, E., Schoofs, L., Cornélis, P., & Bossuyt, F. (2013) · PLoS Genetics · doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1003662 · Cited by 56
“[74,76,77].”
The evolution of metabolism: How to test evolutionary hypotheses at the genomic level
Scossa, F., & Fernie, A. R. (2020) · Computational and Structural Biotechnology Journal · doi:10.1016/j.csbj.2020.02.009 · Cited by 59
“The patchwork hypothesis, on the other hand, is consistent with the various models of protein functional evolution following gene duplications [24,96,164,194,266], and with the evidences coming from directed evolution experiments on the evolution of promiscuous activities [1].”
ResultFunctional Divergence for Every Paralog
Soria, P. S., McGary, K. L., & Rokas, A. (2014) · Molecular Biology and Evolution · doi:10.1093/molbev/msu050 · Cited by 55
“More recent models have focused on the role of positive selection in gene duplication, due to escape from adaptive conflict (Hittinger and Carroll 2007) or selection of a new weak secondary function that drives gene duplication and subsequent divergence (Bergthorsson et al. 2007; Elde et al. 2012).”
BackgroundMicrobial co-habitation and lateral gene transfer: what transposases can tell us
Hooper, S. D., Mavromatis, K., & Kyrpides, N. C. (2009) · Genome biology · doi:10.1186/gb-2009-10-4-r45 · Cited by 60
“A further advantage of transposases over other protein-coding genes is lower degree of selection effects such as conservation, recombination [12], adaptive radiation [13] or counter-selection [14].”
The Evolutionary Potential of Phenotypic Mutations
Yanagida, H., Gispan, A., Kadouri, N., Rozen, S., Sharon, M., Barkai, N., & Tawfik, D. S. (2015) · PLoS Genetics · doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1005445 · Cited by 53
“Divergence before duplication, and a subsequent sub-functionalization to two paralogues, demands the appearance of the new trait within the ancestral, pre-duplicated gene while maintaining its original function [14,23,24,25].”
BackgroundMargres, M. J., Bigelow, A. T., Lemmon, E. M., Lemmon, A. R., & Rokyta, D. R. (2017) · Genetics · doi:10.1534/genetics.117.202655 · Cited by 55
“…thepositive dosagemodel, the frequency of this specific process relative to others, particularly for models requiring sequence variation (Francino 2005; Bergthorsson et al. 2007), is unclear because of the lack of data on copy number variation at the population level (Innan and Kondrashov 2010).”
BackgroundReams, A. B., Kofoid, E., Kugelberg, E., & Roth, J. R. (2012) · Genetics · doi:10.1534/genetics.112.142570 · Cited by 50
Self-citationMicroevolution of Cryptococcus neoformans Driven by Massive Tandem Gene Amplification
Chow, E. W. L., Morrow, C. A., Djordjevic, J. T., Wood, I., & Fraser, J. A. (2012) · Molecular Biology and Evolution · doi:10.1093/molbev/mss066 · Cited by 55
“cerevisiae, amplified gene arrays are found in multiple subtelomeres (Brown et al. 1998; Bergthorsson et al. 2007; Wu et al. 2009; Brown et al. 2010).”
Positive and strongly relaxed purifying selection drive the evolution of repeats in proteins
Persi, E., Wolf, Y. I., & Koonin, E. V. (2016) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/ncomms13570 · Cited by 51
Abiotic selection of microbial genome size in the global ocean
Ngugi, D. K., Acinas, S. G., Sánchez, P., Gasol, J. M., Agustı́, S., Karl, D. M., & Duarte, C. M. (2023) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-023-36988-x · Cited by 51
Baquero, F. (2011) · Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy · doi:10.1093/jac/dkr214 · Cited by 50
van der Nest, M. A., Steenkamp, E. T., McTaggart, A. R., Trollip, C., Godlonton, T., Sauerman, E., Roodt, D., Naidoo, K., Coetzee, M. P. A., Wilken, P. M., et al. (2015) · BMC Evolutionary Biology · doi:10.1186/s12862-015-0550-7 · Cited by 50
“In fungi, changes in the repertoire of GH32 functional products are thought to influence the efficiency at which sucrolytic compounds are exploited [79].”
BackgroundLight-Emitting Dehalogenases: Reconstruction of Multifunctional Biocatalysts
Chaloupková, R., Lišková, V., Toul, M., Marková, K., Šebestová, E., Hernychová, L., Marek, M., Pinto, G., Pluskal, D., Waterman, J., et al. (2019) · ACS Catalysis · doi:10.1021/acscatal.9b01031 · Cited by 46
Enzyme function and evolution through the lens of bioinformatics
Ribeiro, A. J. M., Riziotis, I. G., Borkakoti, N., & Thornton, J. M. (2023) · Biochemical Journal · doi:10.1042/bcj20220405 · Cited by 51
Braga, L. P. P., Soucy, S. M., Amgarten, D., da Silva, A. M., & Setúbal, J. C. (2018) · Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.3389/fevo.2018.00006 · Cited by 49
“Additionally, increased mutation rates or genomic reticulations could lead to the exaptation of genes through duplication, domain shuffling, and altered regulation (True and Carroll, 2002; Zhang, 2003; Taylor and Raes, 2004; Bergthorsson et al., 2007; Pigliucci, 2008).”
BackgroundSignificance and Biological Consequences of Polyploidization in Land Plant Evolution
Fawcett, J. A., de Peer, Y. V., & Maere, S. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-7091-1160-4_17 · Cited by 48
“More recently, two models have been proposed that combine aspects of sub- and neofunctionalization, namely the ‘Escape from Adaptive Conflict’ (EAC) model (Hittinger and Carroll 2007; Des Marais and Rausher 2008) and the ‘Innovation, Amplification, Divergence’ (IAD) model (Hendrickson et al. 2002; Francino 2005; Bergt…”
BackgroundDiscovery and Design of Family VIII Carboxylesterases as Highly Efficient Acyltransferases
Müller, H., Godehard, S. P., Palm, G. J., Berndt, L., Badenhorst, C. P. S., Becker, A., Lammers, M., & Bornscheuer, U. T. (2020) · Angewandte Chemie International Edition · doi:10.1002/anie.202014169 · Cited by 48
How the Toxin got its Toxicity
Jackson, T., & Koludarov, I. (2020) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2020.574925 · Cited by 49
Patrick, W. M., & Matsumura, I. (2008) · Journal of Molecular Biology · doi:10.1016/j.jmb.2008.01.043 · Cited by 47
Kugelberg, E., Kofoid, E., Andersson, D. I., Lu, Y. C., Mellor, J. C., Roth, F. P., & Roth, J. R. (2010) · Genetics · doi:10.1534/genetics.110.114074 · Cited by 48
Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Bergthorsson, U., Andersson, D. I., & Roth, J. R.
- Affiliations
- University of New Mexico (US)
- Uppsala University (SE)
- University of California, Davis (US)
- Venue
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
- Publisher
- National Academy of Sciences
- Published
- 2007-10-23
- Volume
- 104
- Issue
- 43
- Pages
- 17004-17009
- ISSN
- 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
- 1091-6490
- PMC
- PMC2040452
- OpenAlex
- W2051768616
- Cited by
- 405
- References
- 96
- Citations by year
- 2026: 17 · 2025: 17 · 2024: 53 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 21 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 22 · 2016: 28 · 2015: 20 · 2014: 28 · 2013: 23 · 2012: 32
- FWCI
- 9.64
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of General Medical Sciences (GM27068, R01GM027068)
- National Center for Research Resources (P20-RR18754, P20RR018754)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Evolution and Genetic Dynamics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Chromosomal and Genetic Variations
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History and Philosophy of Science › Philosophy of Biology and Scientific Explanation
- Keywords
- gene duplication, gene divergence, continuous selections, pseudogenes, gene copy number
- MeSH terms
- Biological Evolution, Gene Amplification, Gene Frequency, Models, Genetic, Recombination, Genetic, Selection, Genetic, Genetic Variation, Point Mutation, Gene Duplication, Gene Transfer, Horizontal
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