Land, irrigation water, greenhouse gas, and reactive nitrogen burdens of meat, eggs, and dairy production in the United States
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Significance: Livestock-based food production is an important and pervasive way humans impact the environment. It causes about one-fifth of global greenhouse gas emissions, and is the key land user and source of water pollution by nutrient overabundance. It also competes with biodiversity, and promotes species extinctions. Empowering consumers to make choices that mitigate some of these impacts through devising and disseminating numerically sound information is thus a key socioenvironmental priority. Unfortunately, currently available knowledge is incomplete and hampered by reliance on divergent methodologies that afford no general comparison of relative impacts of animal-based products. To overcome these hurdles, we introduce a methodology that facilitates such a comparison. We show that minimizing beef consumption mitigates the environmental costs of diet most effectively.
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In the USA, combined feed consumption by broiler and egg-laying chickens is 58 Mt of dry concentrates per year, the greatest feed volume of any farmed animal group.
“In the USA the combined feed consumption by broiler and egg-laying chickens has been calculated as 58 Mt (×109 kg) of dry concentrates (grains and by-products) per year; the greatest feed volume of any farmed animal group [62].”
From The broiler chicken as a signal of a human reconfigured biosphere (2018) · cites this paper as [62]
The land area required to produce feed for chickens is lower than for pigs and cattle.
“Overall, the land area required to produce feed for chickens is lower than for pigs and cattle, who consume processed roughage and pasture, which increases the overall land-use burden [62,63].”
From The broiler chicken as a signal of a human reconfigured biosphere (2018) · cites this paper as [62]
The land area and reactive nitrogen emitted from the production of chicken feed is more than double that used to grow plant crop staples (rice, wheat and potatoes).
“Nevertheless, the land area and reactive nitrogen emitted (from fertilizers) from the production of chicken feed is significantly higher (more than double) that used to grow plant crop staples (rice, wheat and potatoes) [62].”
From The broiler chicken as a signal of a human reconfigured biosphere (2018) · cites this paper as [62]
Producing animal-sourced foods, especially beef, imposes burdens on land, irrigation water, greenhouse gas emissions, and reactive nitrogen.
“Past investigators have highlighted the land, irrigation water, greenhouse gas, and reactive nitrogen burdens of producing animal-sourced foods, especially beef.[44, 45]”
From Relationship between food waste, diet quality, and environmental sustainability (2018) · cites this paper as [44]
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“These results are generally consistent across the literature, although COM swine production systems often have larger GHG footprints associated with facilities (Pelletier et al., 2010a; Eshel et al., 2014; Kebreab et al., 2016; Tallaksen et al., 2020).”
ResultAn assessment of individual foodprints attributed to diets and food waste in the United States
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- Authors
- Eshel, G., Shepon, A., Makov, T., & Milo, R.
- Affiliations
- Bard College (US)
- Weizmann Institute of Science (IL)
- Yale University (US)
- Venue
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
- Publisher
- National Academy of Sciences
- Published
- 2014-07-21
- Volume
- 111
- Issue
- 33
- Pages
- 11996-12001
- ISSN
- 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
- 1091-6490
- PMC
- PMC4143028
- OpenAlex
- W1998990180
- Cited by
- 466
- References
- 69
- Citations by year
- 2026: 15 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 30 · 2023: 39 · 2022: 42 · 2021: 42 · 2020: 52 · 2019: 46 · 2018: 49 · 2017: 39 · 2016: 33 · 2015: 46 · 2014: 7
- FWCI
- 36.18
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Leona M. and Harry B. Helmsley Charitable Trust
- FP7 Ideas: European Research Council (260392)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Agriculture Sustainability and Environmental Impact
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Environmental Impact and Sustainability
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Sustainable Agricultural Systems Analysis
- Keywords
- beef production, environmental impact of livestock, land use, irrigation water, reactive nitrogen, greenhouse gas emissions, life cycle assessment, dairy products, poultry, pork, eggs, dietary change, resource efficiency, plant-based diet, American diet
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Dairying, Eggs, Gases, Meat, Nitrogen, Greenhouse Effect, Agricultural Irrigation
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