Sterol and genomic analyses validate the sponge biomarker hypothesis
Open accessAbstract
Significance: An unusual molecule is found in rocks ∼650–540 million y old, and its likely precursor, 24-isopropylcholesterol (24-ipc), is produced by some modern sea sponges. The sterane hydrocarbon analog of 24-ipc offers a potential “molecular fossil” for early animals, but certain algae also produce traces of this molecule, so it is unclear when and how frequently the ability to synthesize 24-ipc evolved. In this study, we connect 24-ipc production to a gene and conclude that algae and sponges independently evolved 24-ipc synthesis through unique gene duplication events. Although the timing of the sponge gene duplication overlaps with the geological record of the molecular fossil, the algal gene duplication occurs significantly later, supporting the connection of 24-ipc to sponges and providing the oldest evidence for animal life.
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Possible evidence for sponges comes from molecular biomarkers in rocks from Oman, which suggest that demosponges were present by 635 Ma.
“Possible evidence for sponges comes from molecular biomarkers in rocks from Oman, which suggest that demosponges were present by 635Ma [92-94].”
From The origin of animals: Can molecular clocks and the fossil record be reconciled? (2017) · cites this paper as [94]
The introduction (p. 2) describes 24-isopropylcholestane in rocks approximately 650–540 million years old as a proposed demosponge biomarker, and the Conclusion (p. 6) supports a sponge origin for Neoproterozoic occurrences. The passages do not identify rocks from Oman or establish the specific date of 635 Ma. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe sterane 24-isopropylcholesterol (24-ipc) is only known from demosponges and pelagophyte algae.
“The sterane 24-isopropylcholesterol (24-ipc) is only known from demosponges and pelagophyte algae [94].”
From The origin of animals: Can molecular clocks and the fossil record be reconciled? (2017) · cites this paper as [94]
The introduction (p. 2) identifies demosponges and pelagophyte algae as known producers of 24-ipc, supporting the distribution claim. But it explicitly calls 24-isopropylcholesterol (24-ipc) a sterol; the sterane is 24-isopropylcholestane. The citing sentence conflates the two compounds. (LLM, conf=0.90)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredOur estimates are consistent with some palaeontological and geochemical findings interpreted as evidence for Tonian to Cryogenian animal life.
“Our estimates are consistent with some palaeontological and geochemical findings interpreted as evidence for Tonian to Cryogenian animal life31–37.”
From Dating early animal evolution using phylogenomic data (2017) · cites this paper as [37]
The production of 24-ipc in pelagophytes can be linked to a gene duplication event that is not thought to have occurred until the Phanerozoic.
“However, the production of 24-ipc in pelagophytes can be linked to a gene duplication event that is not thought to have occurred until the Phanerozoic [94].”
From The origin of animals: Can molecular clocks and the fossil record be reconciled? (2017) · cites this paper as [94]
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Self-citation
- Authors
- Gold, D. A., Grabenstatter, J., de Mendoza, A., Riesgo, A., Ruiz-Trillo, I., & Summons, R. E.
- Affiliations
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology (US)
- Institut de Biologia Evolutiva (Consejo Superior de Investigaciones CientÍficas-Universitat Pompeu Fabra), 08003 Barcelona, Spain;
- Natural History Museum (GB)
- Venue
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
- Publisher
- National Academy of Sciences
- Published
- 2016-02-22
- Volume
- 113
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 2684-2689
- ISSN
- 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
- 1091-6490
- PMC
- PMC4790988
- OpenAlex
- W2274921153
- Semantic Scholar
- 0934829b8364e07a0ecb276743e65896c4f401ea
- Cited by
- 145
- References
- 76
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 18 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 20 · 2018: 21 · 2017: 17 · 2016: 7
- FWCI
- 11.26
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DIGITAL.CSIC (Spanish National Research Council (CSIC)) (submittedVersion)
- DSpace@MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- NASA Astrobiology Institute (NNA13AA90A)
- Agouron Institute (Postdoctoral Fellowship)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Protist diversity and phylogeny
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Paleontology › Marine Invertebrate Physiology and Ecology
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Paleontology › Paleontology and Stratigraphy of Fossils
- Keywords
- sterol methyltransferase, gene duplication, molecular fossils, sponge evolution, Salpingoeca rosetta, Capsaspora owczarzaki, Neoproterozoic, molecular clock, origin of animals, eukaryotic phylogeny
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Dehydrocholesterols, Methyltransferases, Models, Molecular, Phylogeny, Porifera, Species Specificity, Sterols, Time Factors, Molecular Structure, Biomarkers, Protein Structure, Secondary, Protein Structure, Tertiary, Evolution, Molecular, Gene Duplication, Genomics
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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