Online hatred of women in the Incels.me forum: Linguistic analysis and automatic detection
Abstract
This paper presents a study of the (now suspended) online discussion forum Incels.me and its users, involuntary celibates or incels , a virtual community of isolated men without a sexual life, who see women as the cause of their problems and often use the forum for misogynistic hate speech and other forms of incitement. Involuntary celibates have attracted media attention and concern, after a killing spree in April 2018 in Toronto, Canada. The aim of this study is to shed light on the group dynamics of the incel community, by applying mixed-methods quantitative and qualitative approaches to analyze how the users of the forum create in-group identity and how they construct major out-groups, particularly women. We investigate the vernacular used by incels, apply automatic profiling techniques to determine who they are, discuss the hate speech posted in the forum, and propose a Deep Learning system that is able to detect instances of misogyny, homophobia, and racism, with approximately 95% accuracy.
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In response to the rise of the feminist movement, several misogynist and anti-feminist groups have emerged.
“In response to the rise of the feminist movement, several misogynist and anti-feminist groups have emerged (Jaki et al., 2019; Marwick & Caplan, 2018).”
From Technology-Facilitated Gender-Based Violence, Hate Speech, and Terrorism: A Risk Assessment on the Rise of the Incel Rebellion in Canada (2023) · cites this paper as Jaki et al., 2019
One of the incel subculture's primary goals is that masculine hegemony be re-established.
“As a result, one of the incel subculture's primary goals is that masculine hegemony be re-established (Jaki et al., 2019; O’Malley et al., 2020).”
From Technology-Facilitated Gender-Based Violence, Hate Speech, and Terrorism: A Risk Assessment on the Rise of the Incel Rebellion in Canada (2023) · cites this paper as Jaki et al., 2019
Incels combine an entitlement to sex with self-deprecation and perceptions of victimization by women.
“Incels combine an entitlement to sex with self-deprecation and perceptions of victimization by women (Bratich & Banet-Weiser, 2019; Jaki et al., 2019).”
From Technology-Facilitated Gender-Based Violence, Hate Speech, and Terrorism: A Risk Assessment on the Rise of the Incel Rebellion in Canada (2023) · cites this paper as Jaki et al., 2019
The MRM moved online during 1980-1990s, creating an online network, or manosphere, that sought to reinstate masculine hegemony.
“The movement moved online during 1980–1990s, creating an online network, or manosphere, that sought to reinstate masculine hegemony (Jaki et al., 2019).”
From Technology-Facilitated Gender-Based Violence, Hate Speech, and Terrorism: A Risk Assessment on the Rise of the Incel Rebellion in Canada (2023) · cites this paper as Jaki et al., 2019
Incels are 'involuntary celibates,' men who blame women for being rejected.
“Incels are 'involuntary celibates,' men who blame women for being rejected, as was the aforementioned case of Rodger (Sylvia Jaki, et al. 2019).”
From “Victims of feminism”: exploring networked misogyny and #MeToo in the manosphere (2023) · cites this paper as Sylvia Jaki, et al. 2019
Online concealment emboldens individuals to act in violence.
“and emboldens individuals to act in violence (Jaki et al., 2019).”
From Technology-Facilitated Gender-Based Violence, Hate Speech, and Terrorism: A Risk Assessment on the Rise of the Incel Rebellion in Canada (2023) · cites this paper as Jaki et al., 2019
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de Roos, M. S., Veldhuizen-Ochodničanová, L., & Hanna, A. (2024) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605241239451 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Chan, E. (2023) · Violence Against Women · doi:10.1177/10778012221125495 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“Incels combine an entitlement to sex with self-deprecation and perceptions of victimization by women (Bratich & Banet-Weiser, 2019; Jaki et al., 2019).”
BackgroundInfluentialA protocol for the annotation of evaluative stance and metaphor across four discourse genres
Downing, L. H., Sobrino, P. P., Llamas, L. F., Maíz-Arévalo, C., Perucha, B. N., Sánchez-Moya, A., & Camus, J. T. W. (2024) · Revista Española de Lingüística Aplicada/Spanish Journal of Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1075/resla.21058.hid · Cited by 23 · see citing works
On Detecting Online Radicalization and Extremism Using Natural Language Processing
Mussiraliyeva, S., Bolatbek, M., Omarov, B. S., Medetbek, Z., Baispay, G., & Ospanov, R. (2020) · International Arab Conference on Information Technology (ACIT) · doi:10.1109/acit50332.2020.9300086 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Detecting ‘Dirt’ and ‘Toxicity’: Rethinking Content Moderation as Pollution BehaviourPreprint
Thylstrup, N. B., & Talat, Z. (2020) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3709719 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Analyzing Incels through the lens of evolutionary psychology
Baselice, K. A. (2024) · Culture and Evolution · doi:10.1556/2055.2022.00016 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Race and the language of incels
Bogetić, K. (2022) · English Today · doi:10.1017/s0266078422000153 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Sexually Frustrated Mass Shooters: A Study of Perpetrators, Profiles, Behaviors, and Victims
Lankford, A., & Silva, J. R. (2022) · Homicide Studies · doi:10.1177/10887679221106975 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Mandla, T., Modha, S., Shahi, G. K., Jaiswal, A. K., Nandini, D., Patel, D. D., Majumder, P., & Schäfer, J. (2021) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2108.05927 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Automated hate speech detection and span extraction in underground hacking and extremist forums
Zhou, L., Caines, A., Pete, I., & Hutchings, A. (2022) · Natural Language Engineering · doi:10.1017/s1351324922000262 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Forensic linguistics: A scientometric review
Alduais, A. M. S., Al-Khulaidi, M. A., Allegretta, S., & Abdulkhalek, M. M. (2023) · Cogent Arts and Humanities · doi:10.1080/23311983.2023.2214387 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
HaT5: Hate Language Identification using Text-to-Text Transfer Transformer
Sabry, S. S., Adewumi, T., Abid, N., Kovács, G., Liwicki, F., & Liwicki, M. (2022) · International Joint Conference on Neural Networks (IJCNN) · doi:10.1109/ijcnn55064.2022.9892696 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Anti-feminism as anti-establishment and emancipatory: the gendered metapolitics of Incel
Price, H. (2023) · Feminist Media Studies · doi:10.1080/14680777.2023.2291314 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
The ‘tarrant effect’: what impact did far-right attacks have on the 8chan forum?
Baele, S. J., Brace, L., & Coan, T. (2020) · Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression · doi:10.1080/19434472.2020.1862274 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
An empirical evaluation of text representation schemes to filter the social media stream
Modha, S., Majumder, P., & Mandl, T. (2021) · Journal of Experimental & Theoretical Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1080/0952813x.2021.1907792 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Capelos, T., Salmela, M., Talalakina, A., & Cotena, O. (2024) · Philosophies · doi:10.3390/philosophies9020036 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Rajesh, E., Basheer, S., Dhanaraj, R. K., Yadav, S., Kadry, S., Khan, M. A., Kim, Y. J., & Cha, J. (2022) · Diagnostics · doi:10.3390/diagnostics13010095 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Palomino-Manjón, P. (2020) · Journal of Language Aggression and Conflict · doi:10.1075/jlac.00049.pal · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Understanding the Incel Community on YouTube
Papadamou, K., Zannettou, S., Blackburn, J., Cristofaro, E. D., Stringhini, G., & Sirivianos, M. (2020) · Ktisis at Cyprus University of Technology (Cyprus University of Technology) · doi:10.5281/zenodo.3630084 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Iveson, M., & Formato, F. (2022) · Discourse Context & Media · doi:10.1016/j.dcm.2022.100628 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Justin, K. J., Shepler, D. K., & Kinel, J. R. (2022) · Journal of Social Behavioral and Health Sciences · doi:10.5590/jsbhs.2022.16.1.09 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Leaving the Incel Community: A Content Analysis
Osuna, A. I. (2023) · Sexuality & Culture · doi:10.1007/s12119-023-10143-6 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
In dialogue with non-humans or how women are silenced in incels’ discourse
Prażmo, E. M. (2022) · Language and Dialogue · doi:10.1075/ld.00119.pra · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Pettersson, K., Marveggio, M. D., Callaghan, P., & Augoustinos, M. (2025) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.3145 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Toward Stopping Incel Rebellion: Detecting Incels in Social Media Using Sentiment Analysis
Hajarian, M., & Khanbabaloo, Z. (2021) · International Conference on Web Research (ICWR) · doi:10.1109/icwr51868.2021.9443027 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Lindner, M. (2023) · Adaptive Human Behavior and Physiology · doi:10.1007/s40750-023-00219-w · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Femcel Discussions of Sex, Frustration, Power, and Revenge
Evans, H. R., & Lankford, A. (2024) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-023-02796-z · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“I’m Better Than This”: A Qualitative Analysis of the Turning Points Leading to Exiting Inceldom
Burns, L.-M., & Boislard, M.-A. (2024) · The Journal of Sex Research · doi:10.1080/00224499.2024.2340110 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Matter, D., Schirmer, M., Grinberg, N., & Pfeffer, J. (2024) · Frontiers in Social Psychology · doi:10.3389/frsps.2024.1383152 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Bloom, M. M. (2022) · The Journal of Intelligence Conflict and Warfare · doi:10.21810/jicw.v5i1.4214 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Incorporating sociocultural and situational factors into explanations of interpersonal violent crime
Dixon, L., Harkins, L., & Wegerhoff, D. (2018) · Psychology Crime and Law · doi:10.1080/1068316x.2018.1557183 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Adams, N. N., & Smith, D. S. (2025) · Deviant Behavior · doi:10.1080/01639625.2025.2453443 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Analyzing Hate Speech with Incel-Hunters’ Critiques
Sang, Y., & Stanton, J. M. (2020) · International Conference on Social Media and Society (SMSociety) · doi:10.1145/3400806.3400808 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Cut From the Same Cloth? The Problem of Male Supremacy and Deradicalization
Rothermel, A.-K., & Kelly, M. (2024) · Men and Masculinities · doi:10.1177/1097184x241264245 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
A feminine advantage in the domain of harm: a review and path forward
Graso, M., & Reynolds, T. A. (2024) · Biology Letters · doi:10.1098/rsbl.2024.0381 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Papandreou, C., Sparks, B., Daly, S. E., & Pacheco, E.-M. (2025) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-025-07335-8 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Fight with words: misogynist extremism on an incel discussion forum
Coufal, L., Saresma, T., & Kosonen, H. S. (2025) · NORMA · doi:10.1080/18902138.2025.2513103 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Hybride maskuliniteter og hatideologi på nett:
Prøitz, L., Langeland, F., Steinnes, K. K., & Mainsah, H. N. (2022) · Norsk medietidsskrift · doi:10.18261/nmt.29.2.3 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
- Authors
- Jaki, S., De Smedt, T., Gwóźdź, M., Panchal, R., Rossa, A., & De Pauw, G.
- Affiliations
- University of Hildesheim (DE)
- University of Antwerp
- Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (DE)
- Columbia University (US)
- University of Hull (GB)
- Textgain
- Venue
- Journal of Language Aggression and Conflict
- Publisher
- John Benjamins Publishing Company
- Published
- 2019-07-08
- Volume
- 7
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 240-268
- ISSN
- 2213-1272 (ISSN-L)
- 2213-1280
- OpenAlex
- W2959053582
- Cited by
- 226
- References
- 53
- Citations by year
- 2026: 32 · 2025: 41 · 2024: 30 · 2023: 29 · 2022: 36 · 2021: 29 · 2020: 24 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 1
- FWCI
- 10.49
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Language Aggression and Conflict (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Hate Speech and Cyberbullying Detection
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Misinformation and Its Impacts
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Keywords
- online hate speech, misogyny, online forums, ingroup identification, outgroup, group dynamics, vernacular language, hate speech detection, homophobia, racism, deep learning
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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