Linking Parent Involvement With Student Achievement: Do Race and Income Matter?

“Second, students’ perception of parental involvement in schooling was found to be a stronger predictor of their academic achievement than their parents’ actual or reported involvement (Desimone, 1999; Gecas & Schwalbe, 1986; Grolnick, Ryan, & Deci, 1991).”

“The findings are also in agreement with the study conducted by Desimone (1999) which suggests that parents’ socioeconomic status (especially the family income) affects parental involvement and student’s achievement.”

“Researchers (e.g., Desimone, 1999; Lee & Croninger, 1994; Parcel & Dufur, 2001) have found a negative association between lack of access to specific forms of social capital (e.g., relationship with teachers and counselors) and students’ academic achievement.”

“Different family demographic situations are also said to contribute to these variations within a culture and between cultures (Der-Karabetian, 2004; Desimone, 2001; Finn, 1998; Hill et al., 2004; Siu & Lo, 1990).”

“Graduating parents experienced challenges in parenting that reflect challenges noted in other studies (Auerbach, 2004; Desimone, 1999; Turney & Kao, 2009).”

“…on school outcomes (Desforges and Abouchaar, 2003) and that levels of both ‘at home’ and ‘at school’ involvement (Sui-Chu and Willms 1996) vary greatly according to a family’s social class and ethnicity (Delgado-Gaitan 1991; Desimone 1999; Fine, Weis, and Powell 1997; McNeal 1999; Reay 1998).”

“Another limitation of prior research is that parental involvement and the effect of such involvement on adolescent academic achievement is often confounded by ethnic and cultural factors (Coleman, 1988; Desimone, 1999; Keith et al., 1998; Lee & Bowen, 2006; Perna & Titus, 2005; Stevenson, Chen, & Uttal, 1990).”

“However, parents may tend to overstate their involvement with schools, whereas principals may tend to report on school-level factors in a manner that makes their schools look good (Bingham, Haubrich, and White 1993; Desimone 2006). Therefore, there may be differences in terms of which particular aspect of parental inv…”

“While other studies have demonstrated a negative (Desimone, 1999; Fan, 2001), or no association (Domina, 2005; El Nokali, Bachman, & Votruba-Drzal, 2010), between school-based involvement activities and achievement.”

“…findings indicate that family involvement is positively associated with student math proficiency (Sheldon & Epstein, 2005; Sirvani, 2007), reading performance (PowellSmith, Stoner, Shinn, & Good, 2000), and academic achievement (Desimone, 1999; Domina, 2005; Fan & Williams, 2010; Jeynes, 2005).”

“Furthermore, parental involvement has been shown to vary by race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and family structure (Aston & McLanahan, 1991; Desimone, 1999; Zellman & Waterman, 1998).”

“…the positive effects of parental involvement generalize across ethnic groups (Jeynes, 2005; Kim, 2002; Kloosterman et al., 2011; Lee & Bowen, 2006), though effect sizes may vary across ethnic-racial groups and socioeconomic status (Desimone, 1999; Domina, 2005; Keith et al., 1998; Yan & Lin, 2005).”

“…social, behavioral, and academic outcomes and particular types of positive parent involvement with the school and with the child’s learning—for students of all racial-ethnic and income backgrounds (Booth & Dunn, 1996; Coleman & Hoffer, 1987; Desimone, 1999; Muller, 1995; Sui-Chu & Willms, 1996).”

“Several researchers have used these measures to predict academic outcomes (e.g., Desimone, 1999; Muller, 1995; Sui-Chi & Willms, 1996).”

“In addition to economic (i.e., lower financial resources; Desimone, 1999) and social factors (e.g., parenting practices; Guryan et al., 2008), psychological reasons might account for the social class graduation gap.”

“For decades, researchers have proposed that parental involvement is an effective support strategy that, to a degree, ensures student success; this belief is based on an encouraging, but ultimately correlational, relationship between parental involvement and a child’s academic in-school performance (Barnard, 2004; Desi…”

“, Sy & Schulenberg, 2005) and the relation between parents’ involvement and children’s achievement (Desimone, 1999).”

“A large body of research suggested that parental involvement can have a positive effect on students’ academic achievement (e.g., Cotton & Wikelund, 1989; Desimone, 1999; Henderson & Berla, 1994; Izzo, Weissberg, Kasprow, & Fendrich, 1999; Reynolds, 1991; Walberg, 1984).”

“Desimone (1999) found that traditional measures of parental involvement (e.g., attending Parent Teacher Association [PTA] meetings) were more predictive of achievement for European American and middle-income students than for Latino, low-income, or African American students.”

“…on student outcomes (see, for example, Stevenson & Baker, 1987; Fehrmann et al., 1987; White et al., 1992; Griffith, 1996; Ho & Willms, 1996; Desimone, 1999; Feuerstein, 2000; Peña, 2000; Sheldon & Epstein, 2005) are inconsistent due to several factors.3 In spite of these inconsistencies,…”

“2005) whereas others have found a negative (e.g., Desimone 1999; Fan and Chen 2001) or no impact (e.g., Topor et al.”

“and included gender, race, ethnicity, and age of respondent [9,42,43].”

“Parents of African American and Hispanic students are less likely than parents of White students to be involved in their child’s education (Child Trends, n.d.; Desimone, 1999; U.S. Department of Education, 2003).”

“…studies have used interactions to examine class and racial differences in the relationship between parental homework help and student achievement (Desimone 1999; Domina 2005; Lee and Bowen 2006; McNeal 2001), but prior research has not investigated the influence of parental homework help for…”

“Researchers have identified different types of parental involvement (Desimone, 1999) and grouped those types into larger dimensions (Wang & SheikhKhalil, 2014).”

“Encouraging active parent–teacher organization involvement for lowincome and underrepresented ethnic groups can also be an effective way for schools to target underinvolved groups (Desimone, 1999).”

“First, much research (Barnard, 2004; DePlanty, Coulter-Kern, & Duchane, 2007; Desimone, 1999; Fan, 2001; Hill & Craft, 2003; Keith et al., 1998; Lee & Bowen, 2006; Sui-Chu & Willms, 1996) indicated that parental involvement is important in student performance.”

“Many authors (see, for example, Desimone, 1999; Harris and Goodall, 2008) suggest that parental involvement in their children’s learning in home makes a great difference to student achievement (although more information is needed about how the effects of this involvement vary for students from…”

“In the classroom Latino parents do not understand the expectations of their involvement, and teachers might not begin to contact the parents to get them involved until late in the year (Desimone, 1999).”

“…& Price, 2008; Milem & Berger, 1997; St. John, Hu, Simmons, & Musoba, 2001), income (Berger & Braxton, 1998, Olenchak & Hebert, 2002), parent education (Pas-carella, Pierson, Wolniak, & Terenzini, 2004; Ting, 2003), and family structure (Desimone, 1999; Hurtado, Inkelas, Briggs, & Rhee, 1997).”

“For example, Desimone (1999) reported negative e ff ects of parental involvement, suggesting that parents become more involved in their children’s schooling in response to negative feelings about students’ poor performance.”

“Studies of Hispanic families’ effect on academic achievement have explored parental involvement (Desimone, 1999; Keith & Lichtman, 1994; McWhirter, Hackett, & Bandalos, 1998), the role of religious commitment (Jeynes, 1999), differences between immigrant or first or second generation families…”

“…school-based PI is positively associated with children’s academic performance (e.g., grade point average or teacher ratings of academic progress [Desimone, 1999; Englund, Luckner, Whaley, & Egeland, 2004, Fan & Chen, 2001]; performance on standardized tests [Daniel, Wang, & Berthelsen, 2016;…”

“A negative relationship between parent– youth study time and math achievement has been found in Western countries, suggesting that the lower children’s math scores are, the more parents will study with their children (e.g., Desimone, 1999; Guzman, HampdenThompson, & Lippman, 2003).”

“…minoritized families may approach educational opportunities differently than White families; or engagement practices that look similar across race may build from different reasoning (Auerbach, 2007; Desimone, 1999; Diamond & Gomez, 2004; Dow, 2019; Lewis-McCoy, 2014; McGrath & Kuriloff, 1999).”

“Other studies also have shown that students’ academic expectation (Hanson, 1994; Mickelson, 1990; Trusty, 2002) and parental involvement (Desimone, 1999; Feuerstein, 2000; Hill et al., 2004) are the important variables, both in predicting and explaining academic achievement.”

“achievement and self-esteem [12,25] while decreasing absenteeism and behavioral problems [21,33].”

“Certain kinds of school involvement can even be negatively associated with academic performance (Desimone, 1999; Hill et al., 2004).”

“Parental involvement is also a consistent significant predictor of children and adolescent’ academic success (Desimone, 1999; Domina, 2005; Fan & Chen, 2001; Greenwood & Hickman, 1991; Hill & Tyson, 2009; Jeynes, 2003, 2005; Marchant, Paulson, & Rothlisberg, 2001; Paulson, 1994; Spera, 2005;…”

“For example, frequent parent–child communication (Becher, 1984; Desimone, 1999) and parental assistance such as student-reported discussion, family discussion on schoolwork, and home rules (Dornbusch et al., 1987; S. Lee, 1994; Muller, 1993; Schneider & Lee, 1990) did not affect Asian American…”

“Research argued that establishment of parent center, home visit program, and action research teams promote PI and working partnership between parents and educators (Davies, 1991), and that parental involvement varies according to race and family income (Desimone, 1999).”

“Higher grades and test scores, more consistent completion of homework and high selfefficacy are all linked with parental involvement (Desimone, 1999).”

“Previous research has shown that parental involvement is strongly associated with student achievement (Desimone, 1999).”

“Extant literature substantiates this link as poverty has been found to be a strong determinant of parents' inability to sustain high levels of parental involvement (Bradley, Corwyn, McAdoo, & García Coll, 2001; Desimone, 1999; Hofferth, 2003).”

“Desimone (2001) and Heath (1991) found that students living in lower-income homes were exposed to fewer literary experiences, had qualitatively different verbal and reading-related interactions with parents, and made academic progress that was hindered by poor communication between parents and the schools their childr…”

“Indeed, many studies have indicated a dependence of participation on the socioeconomic and ethnic background (Desimone 1999; Jeynes 2010).”

“While research documents the numerous theoretical and academic bene- 448 KATHLEEN M. BROWN ET AL. fits gleaned from parental involvement (see Brough, 1997; Desimone, 1999; McNeal, 1999), this second theme anecdotally describes the lived experiences.”

“…coming from parents who have completed a university degree since parents from higher SES are more effective in helping their children's education through their discussions with their children, involvement in their schools, monitoring, and educational support (Desimone, 1999; McNeal, 1999).”

“…SES and family involvement in their children’s studies is also reported as a relevant variable, depending on the study and results, and there are studies that show a positive relation between both variables (Desimone, 1999; Kim, Hwang, & Shin, 2009; Lee & Bowen, 2006; McNeal, 1999; Park, 2008).”

“High parental expectations, for example, may have little in uence upon disadvantaged children, who may perceive their futures as bleak and unlikely to be improved by education (Ogbu, 1987; Desimone, 1999).”

“…reported general, positive connections of family involvement with student success through high school (Catsambis, 2001; Catsambis & Beveridge, 2001; Desimone, 1999; Ho & Willms, 1996; Keith et al., 1993; Lee & Croninger, 1994; Parcel & Dufur, 2001; Patrikakou, Weissberg, Redding, & Walberg, 2005;…”

“In particular, interventions aimed toward desegregating neighborhoods and schools (poor African Americans are more than threefold times more likely to live in high poverty neighborhoods and failing school districts than poor whites), reducing income inequality, and reducing social biases might be effective in reducing…”

“For instance, when an adolescent experiences a negative home environment, the school environment may actually serve as a buffer against delinquency if an adolescent can connect with pro-social peers and supportive school staff, which in turn can promote academic achievement ( Desimone, 2001; Kenny, Gallagher, Alvarez-…”

“children’s education (Desimone 1999), but that may be partly due to the fact that many datasets have very little information about parents beyond their socioeconomic status.”

“Relational factors, such as a supportive home environment and supportive relationships with other competent adults are equally important (Chavkin & Gonzalez, 2000; Desimone, 1999; Getz, 2000; Hauser, 1999).”

“Desimone (1999) analyzed a nationally representative sample of nearly 25,000 eighth graders and found negative associations between parents’ contact with the school regarding academic matters and students’ achievement.”

“Because many minority parents cannot be as involved in their child’s schooling compared with nonminority parents due to economic and other barriers (Desimone, 1999; Zhang, Hsu, Kwok, Benz, & Bowman-Perrott, 2011), it is important to understand whether distinct reasons for not being involved…”

“Parent factors contributing to academic performance vary by racial or ethnic group and income level (Desimone, 1999; Okagaki & Frensch, 1998; Rosenzweig, 2001).”