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Cited by 55Media, Gender, and AdvertisingCritical Race Theory in EducationMarketing and Advertising Strategies

Critical Race Theory (CRT) and colourism: a manifestation of whitewashing in marketing communications?

Mitchell, Talé A.·2020·Journal of Marketing Management
DOI 10.1080/0267257x.2020.1794934
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Abstract

Utilising the lens of Critical Race Theory (CRT), this study explores connections between colourism and the alleged practice of whitewashing the skin tones of Black women in print media marketing communications. Previous inquiry has not empirically addressed the presentation of the skin tones of Black women in marketing materials. This study begins to fill that gap by examining how Black women’s skin tones are presented in marketing, and explores surrounding issues concerning racism, colourism, and perceptions of beauty. There is also a significant contribution to methodology by the operationalisation of skin tones. Future research and implications for marketing management are suggested.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This study uses Critical Race Theory’s cosmetic colorblindness lens to examine colourism in print magazine advertising, finding that Black women with light and medium skin tones were far more represented than dark-skinned Black women. It argues that these patterns, together with industry responses to whitewashing allegations, suggest colourism may manifest as whitewashing in marketing communications.

Key findings

  • Across 998 advertisements in Essence, Ebony, Vogue, and Elle (May 2017–April 2018), Essence had a significantly higher percentage of Black models (46%) than Ebony (17%), Vogue (17%), and Elle (20%); 97% of Black models were primary models, 76% were unknown, 24% were known, and less than 1% represented professionals.
  • The most represented skin tone was PMS 729, the brown paper bag shade (34%), followed by PMS 728 (28%) and PMS 730 (21%); grouped into categories, 36% were light skin tones and 10% were dark skin tones. Chi-square tests found significant differences between medium and dark skin tone models, x²(1, N = 641) = 641, p = .000, and between light and dark skin tone models, x²(1, N = 454) = 144, p = .000.
  • The top product categories for Black models were retail (33%), hair products (20%), and skincare for the face (18%). Significant associations were found between product category and skin tone category, x²(12, N = 998) = 36.94, p = .000; product category and PMS skin tones, x²(36, N = 998) = 79.00, p = .000; product category and magazines, x²(18, N = 998) = 282.86, p = .000; and product category and model types, x²(12, N = 998) = 126.81, p = .000. Only models with the lightest two shades, PMS 726 and 727, advertised beauty products for the hair.
  • Magazines and skin tones showed a significant association, x²(18, N = 998) = 26.01, p = .047; all four magazines were least likely to feature PMS 726 and PMS 732 and most likely to feature PMS 729 and PMS 728.

Methods

  • A visual content analysis was conducted of 44 issues—11 each of Essence, Ebony, Vogue, and Elle—printed between May 2017 and April 2018, yielding 998 advertisements. Advertisements were excluded if they featured children, were not in colour, or repeated the same model more than once.
  • Ten variables were coded: magazine name, year, month, media type; model skin tone using Pantone PMS 726–732, grouped into light, medium, and dark categories based on a pre-survey of 249 respondents; model prominence; model type; brand name; and product category across 20 categories.
  • Two coders completed 21 hours of training and three rounds of testing. Intercoder reliability reached Cohen’s Kappa of .81 for skin tone, .82 for skin category, 1.00 for model prominence, .90 for model type, and 1.00 for product category. Descriptive analysis and chi-square tests were used.

Limitations

  • The paper states that content analysis cannot draw conclusions on cause and effect, cannot obtain the direction of associations, and cannot confirm whitewashing; it also excludes Black men because colourism may be experienced differently by gender.
  • Evident from the text: the sample is limited to four US magazines over one year (May 2017–April 2018) and to Black women in print advertisements and covers, so findings may not generalise to other media, markets, or time periods; skin-tone coding also relies on the Pantone strip and a pre-survey classification.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1080/0267257x.2020.1794934

Cites

76 of 76 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

8 tests recomputed · 1 with the reported and recomputed p on opposite sides of .05

Claims the paper makes

9 of 71 cited sources checked · 2 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation
    § Colourism

    Colourism goes back to slavery when White slave owners regularly raped their Black slave women.

    “Colourism, interracial and intraracial racism based on skin tone, goes back to slavery when White slave owners regularly raped their Black slave women (Harris, 2008; Russell et al., 1992).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Harris, 2008 source

      The Introduction says U.S. slavery relied heavily on white sexual violence against Black people and links rape and forced procreation to practices important in the evolution of American colorism. But it also says colorism is global and that preferences for light skin existed in regions with little or no African slavery, so the source does not support slavery as colorism’s general origin. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Russell et al., 1992

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Premisecitation
    § Critical Race Theory (CRT) and colourism: a manifestation of whitewashing in marketing communications?

    The presence of Black women with darker skin tones has always been significantly less than other skin tones routinely depicted in magazines, with the exception of the 1970s.

    “The results revealed that the presence of Black women with darker skin tones has always been significantly less than other skin tones routinely depicted in magazines, with the exception of the 1970s (M. Smith, 2015).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites M. Smith, 2015

      The Physical Characteristics table shows dark brown-skinned models were less common than light- and medium-brown models in the sampled years outside 1974, when their representation rose to 36.7%. But fair-skinned models were less common than dark brown-skinned models, and the reported chi-square test establishes a relationship between year and skin tone—not that dark skin was significantly less represented than every other tone. The findings cover five sampled years, not all magazine depictions. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation
    § Discussion

    There is a long history of Black women's bodies not representing the standards of the idealised beautiful thin bodies unless they are portrayed as exotic, hypersexualized, or objectified beauty.

    “There is a long history of Black women's bodies not representing the standards of the idealised beautiful thin bodies unless they are portrayed as exotic (Banks, 2000), hyper­ sexualized (Anderson et al., 2018), or objectified beauty (Harrison et al., 2017).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Banks, 2000 source
    • cites Anderson et al., 2018 source
    • cites Harrison et al., 2017 source
  • Premisecitation
    § Policy Implications

    Through his ethnography research on an affirmative action internship programme, Boulton found there were 24 must hire White interns for every nine Black interns.

    “Through his ethnography research on an affirmative action internship programme, Boulton found there were 24 must hire White interns for every nine Black interns.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Boulton, 2015 source

      Section 3, “Production: Opportunity Hoarding” (page unavailable), reports that at the three agencies studied, 24 white must-hire interns outnumbered nine MAIP interns of colour. The count and ethnographic setting match, but the paper does not identify all nine as Black; its Methods section describes MAIP as serving students from several racial and ethnic groups. (LLM, conf=0.90)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation
    § Policy Implications

    Most of the intern positions go to White privileged students who know someone, have a family member in the company, or are the child of a friend in the advertising industry.

    “Most of the intern positions go to White privileged students who know someone, have a family member in the company, or are the child of a friend in the advertising industry.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Boulton, 2015 source

      The Production section describes “must-hire” interns selected through personal connections and reports that all 24 must-hires at the three agencies studied were white. But it compares them with nine MAIP interns of colour, not with all interns, so it does not establish that most internship positions generally go to well-connected white students. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • May combine two claims. 27
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 45

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Colourism

    Black people began treating light skin tone as a form of social capital and discriminating against dark skin tone women within their own race.

    “In this case, Black people began treating light skin tone as a form of social capital (Harris, 2008; Keith, 2009; Russell et al., 1992), and discriminating against dark skin tone women within their own race (Begedou, 2015; Hall, 2005; Russell et al., 1992).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Harris, 2008 source
    • cites Keith, 2009

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Russell et al., 1992

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Colourism

    Colourism is interracial and intraracial racism based on skin tone.

    “Colourism, interracial and intraracial racism based on skin tone, goes back to slavery when White slave owners regularly raped their Black slave women (Harris, 2008; Russell et al., 1992).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Harris, 2008 source

      The Introduction describes colorism as discrimination linked to lighter versus darker skin and says it reveals hierarchies within racialized groups; it also defines colorism regardless of perceived racial identity. But it calls colorism and traditional racism intertwined yet distinct, and says skin tone is not the sole basis of color identification. The claim therefore captures part of the concept but narrows it to skin tone and equates it with racism. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Russell et al., 1992

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Policy Implications

    When he spoke to those who hired the interns, they did not understand that the must hires limit the positions and undermine the opportunities for Black interns who work hard to get a spot in the program.

    “However, when he spoke to those who hired the interns, they did not understand that the must hires limit the positions and undermine the opportunities for Black interns who work hard to get a spot in the program.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Boulton, 2015 source

      In §3, “Production: Opportunity Hoarding” (page unavailable), Boulton says must-hires occupy scarce internship slots and limit opportunities for people of colour. He also describes interviews with hiring staff, but does not establish that those staff failed to understand the effect on Black applicants or discuss applicants who worked hard to secure a place. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation
    § Policy Implications

    Boulton (2015) argues that even the affirmative action internship programmes for advertising agencies are a façade.

    “Boulton (2015) argues that even the affirmative action internship programmes for advertising agencies are a façade.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Boulton, 2015 source

      The Abstract says internship-based affirmative action efforts are undermined and overwhelmed by a wider system of privileged ‘must-hires,’ whose effects are masked by colour-blind meritocracy. But the Methods section describes MAIP placing students of colour in paid internships, and section 5 calls affirmative action a potentially necessary corrective. Calling the programmes a ‘façade’ overstates the paper if it means they are merely a sham. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning
    § Discussion

    Black women were also more likely to advertise retail products, but least likely to advertise beauty products for the body.

    “Black women were also more likely to advertise retail products, but least likely to advertise beauty products for the body.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data
    § Results

    Three percent of the advertisements were covers of the magazines.

    “Three percent of the advertisements were covers of the magazines (as expected)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given
    § Cosmetic colorblindness

    Dove's response to the 2011 advertisement minimalized any claims of racism as if it were impossible because racism no longer exists.

    “Their cosmetic colorblind response minimalized any claims of racism as if it were impossible because racism no longer exists.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given
    § Cosmetic colorblindness

    The 2017 Dove advertisement was quickly labelled as racist.

    “In 2017, Dove, the skincare beauty brand owned by Unilever, released a digital social media advertisement for their body wash that was quickly labelled as racist.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Colorblindness

    Racism is robust and institutionalised.

    “Colorblindness is the perception that racism no longer exists and therefore should not be addressed; and that everyone has equal opportunities, when in fact, racism is robust and institutionalised.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bonilla-Silva, 2003

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given
    § Sample

    Essence and Ebony were the magazines with the highest circulation that targeted Black women, while Vogue and Elle were the magazines with the highest circulation that targeted White women.

    “Essence (1 million) and Ebony (1.3 million) were the magazines with the highest circulation that targeted Black women, while Vogue (1.2 million) and Elle (1.2 million) were the magazines with the highest circulation that targeted White women.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning
    § Sample

    December issues were excluded from the analysis because the issues for Essence and Ebony were not comparable in size to Vogue and Elle due to the December New York Fashion Week special editions.

    “The December issues were excluded from the analysis because the issues for Essence and Ebony magazines were not comparable in size to Vogue and Elle due to the December New York Fashion Week special editions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Critical Race Theory (CRT) and colourism: a manifestation of whitewashing in marketing communications?

    Colourism operates within and between races.

    “When the two definitions are synthesised, colourism operates within and between races (Bonilla-Silva, 2003; Herring et al., 2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Bonilla-Silva, 2003

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Herring et al., 2004

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Colorblindness

    Colorblind racism is subtle and expressed indirectly, as opposed to prior expressions of racism that were blatant, visual, and expressed directly.

    “Colorblind racism is subtle and expressed indirectly, as opposed to prior expressions of racism that were blatant, visual, and expressed directly.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given
    § Colourism

    Today colourism is expressed subtly and indirectly, which acts as a form of colorblindness.

    “However, today it is expressed subtly and indirectly, which acts as a form of colorblindness.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given
    § Coder training

    There was a total of 21 hours of coding training, including three rounds of individual testing.

    “There was a total of 21 hours of coding training, including three rounds of individual testing.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data
    § Coding variables

    The Pantone colours were grouped into light, medium, and dark skin tone categories based on a pre-survey with 249 respondents.

    “Then, based on a pre-survey with 249 respondents, the Pantone colours were grouped as skin tone categories : light skin tones, medium skin tones, or dark skin tones.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given
    § Colourism

    Passing as White was crucial because it was one of the primary means for escaping slavery.

    “Passing as White, was crucial because it was one of the primary means for escaping slavery.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Colorblindness

    The new racism allows the preservation of White elite status, which allows them to oppress others based on social status.

    “The new racism allows the preservation of the White elite status, which allows them to oppress others based on social status.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Cosmetic colorblindness

    The 2011 Dove print advertisement featured three women (Black, Latina, White) with 'before' behind the Black woman and 'after' behind the White woman, and the before skin texture appeared dull and unhealthy while the after appeared bright and healthy.

    “In 2011, Dove released a print media advertisement that featured three women from left to right (Black, Latina, and White) standing in front of a background of what appeared to represent skin tones and skin textures. The left side of the background, behind the Black woman, read, before while the right side behind the White woman, read after . Additionally, the skin texture of the before image ap”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Cosmetic colorblindness

    Ogunyemi's statement is an example of cosmetic colourism, perhaps in her own interest, so as not to step on any toes or out of fear of being blackballed.

    “Ogunyemi's statement is also an example of cosmetic colourism, perhaps in her own interest, so as not to step on any toes or out of fear of being blackballed.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Colourism

    Having a light skin tone allowed Mulattos certain privileges, and sometimes they could pass as White or be legally classified as White.

    “Having a light skin tone allowed Mulattos certain privileges, and sometimes they could even pass as White (Gullickson, 2005; Russell et al., 1992) or be legally classified as White.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Gullickson, 2005 source
    • cites Russell et al., 1992

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given
    § Coding variables

    Some product categories were adapted and revised from Craig (1992) and Martin and Collins (2002).

    “Some categories were adapted and revised from Craig (1992) and Martin and Collins (2002).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Craig, 1992 source
    • cites Martin and Collins, 2002 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given
    § Coder training

    Once Cohen's Kappa reached acceptable intercoder reliability, coding was done independently without consultation or guidance.

    “Once Cohen's Kappa reached acceptable inter­ coder reliability, coding was done independently without consultation or guidance.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Discussion

    According to Nielsen (2017), 'Black women are major fashion trendsetters who have a substantial influence on mainstream culture'.

    “According to Nielsen (2017), 'Black women are major fashion trendsetters who have a substantial influence on mainstream culture' (p. 4).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Nielsen, 2017

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Discussion

    DiAngelo (2018) argues that 'not my intention' is another way to cover up racism.

    “DiAngelo (2018) argues that 'not my intention' is another way to cover up racism:”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites DiAngelo, 2018

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Coder training

    A Cohen's Kappa .75 and above is considered excellent agreement beyond chance.

    “A Cohen's Kappa .75 and above is considered excellent agreement beyond chance (Banerjee et al., 1999).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Banerjee et al., 1999 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data
    § Discussion

    Past research and the results of this study support the ideology of colourism and suggest the use of the brown paper bag as a marker for acceptable skin tones to represent the mainstream standards of beauty.

    “Likewise, past research and the results of this study support the ideology of colourism and suggest the use of the brown paper bag as a marker for acceptable skin tones to represent the mainstream standards of beauty.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: PMS 729 represents the brown paper bag skin tone.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Discussion

    Each one of these responses represents cosmetic colorblindness that is a manifestation of colourism and indicates that it was not their intention.

    “Each one of these responses represents cosmetic colorblindness that is a manifestation of colourism and indicates that [it]was not their intention .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Discussion

    Nielsen predicts that by 2021, Black spending power will be 1.5 USD trillion, with a majority of that attributed to Black women.

    “Nielson predicts that by 2021, Black spending power will be 1.5 USD trillion, with a majority of that attributed to Black women.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Nielsen, 2017

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given
    § Coder training

    Disagreements were resolved using the 'majority' decision rule: the researcher was the third judge.

    “Disagreements were resolved using the 'majority' decision rule: the researcher was the third judge.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data
    § Coder training

    Cohen's Kappa for the models' information (skin tone, skin category, model prominence, and model type) and product category reached intercoder reliability in the third round of testing; skin tone k = .81, skin category k = .82, model prominence k = 1.00, model type k = .90, and product category k = 1.00.

    “Cohen's Kappa for the models' information (skin tone, skin category, model prominence, and model type) and product category reached intercoder reliability in the third round of testing; skin tone k = .81, skin category k = .82, model prominence k = 1.00, model type k = .90, and product category k = 1.00.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation
    § Discussion

    The discourse of the accusations represented cosmetic colorblindness.

    “Equally important, the discourse of the accusations represented cosmetic colorblindness by stating: 'Nothing out of the ordinary was done. We have four separate covers this month, and Gabby's cover was not retouched any more or less than the others'”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Leach, 2010

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Marikar, 2010

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation
    § Discussion

    Henderson et al. (2003) contend that this reinforces the idea that Black women are less attractive than White women.

    “Henderson et al. (2003) contend that this reinforces the idea that Black women are less attractive than White women.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Henderson et al., 2003 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductcitation
    § Coder training

    Intercoder reliability was measured using Cohen's Kappa.

    “intercoder reliability was measured using Cohen's Kappa (Neuendorf, 2001).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Neuendorf, 2001

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data
    § Coder training

    The reliability for the magazine information (name, year, month, and type of advertisement) was k = 1.00 in the first round of testing.

    “The reliability for the magazine information (name, year, month, and type of advertisement) was k = 1.00 in the first round of testing.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Colourism manifested in whitewashing

    Black people with dark skin tones have been labelled as inferior by way of colourism, and therefore their skin tone needs to be altered to appear to be lighter.

    “In this context, Black people with dark skin tones have been labelled as inferior by way of colourism, and therefore their skin tone needs to be altered to appear to be lighter.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation
    § Discussion

    Discursive buffers are when a racist comment is sandwiched between two buffer comments.

    “Discursive buffers are when a racist com­ ment is sandwiched between two buffer comments, like I am not a racist, but . . . . . . . or some of my closest friends are Black (p. 29).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bonilla-Silva, 2003

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Colourism manifested in whitewashing

    While the findings of this study do not explicitly point to whitewashing, the prevalence of colourism that was found, coupled with the steady stream of allegations, does suggest that whitewashing may be a routine practice within marketing.

    “While the findings of this study do not explicitly point to whitewashing, the prevalence of colourism that was found, coupled with the steady stream of allegations, does suggest that whitewashing may be a routine practice within marketing.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The accusations of whitewashing indicate actual whitewashing.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Managerial implications

    Managers may see themselves as colorblind to skin tone but may unconsciously connect light skin tone with beauty, making them less likely to recognise whitewashing until there are allegations, or not at all.

    “Managers may see themselves as colorblind to skin tone, but may unconsciously make a connection between light skin tone and beauty, and hence are less likely to recognise whitewashing until there are allegations, or maybe not at all.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given
    § Managerial implications

    Through the CRT lens, the root of colourism is the ideology of White supremacy.

    “Managing diversity and inclusion only begins to address the problem; however, through the CRT lens, the root of colourism is the ideology of White supremacy.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Policy Implications

    As long as there is a lack of diversity in advertising agencies, the institutionalisation of print media marketing communication will unintentionally promote racism and colourism.

    “As long as there is a lack of diversity in advertising agencies, the institutionalisation of print media marketing communication will unintentionally promote racism and colourism.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Colourism manifested in whitewashing

    The overall strategy is to portray White as beautiful, and whitewashing is the task to promote this strategy.

    “The overall strategy is to portray White as beautiful, and whitewashing is the task to promote this strategy.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given
    § Discussion

    It is highly unlikely that brands such as L'Oréal would acknowledge that whitewashing is a racist practice, nor that it was done intentionally.

    “It is highly unlikely that brands such as L'Oréal would acknowledge that whitewashing is a racist practice, nor that it was done intentionally.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Discussion

    This kind of discourse aids in the systemic practice of subtle racism.

    “This kind of discourse aids in the systemic practice of subtle racism.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Colourism manifested in whitewashing

    Whitewashing demonstrates racialisation as a way for White people to discriminate against Black people based on features they have ascribed to them and labelled as inferior.

    “In any event, whitewashing demonstrates racialisation as a way for White people to discriminate against Black people based on features they have ascribed to them and labelled as inferior.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Managerial implications

    People of color can and do reproduce systemic practices of racism.

    “Again, Martinez (2014) contends that 'people of color can and do reproduce systemic practices of racism' (p. 20).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Martinez (2014)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Discussion

    This suggests that the hair products are aimed at women with hair that could pass the fine-tooth comb test, which may reflect the advertisers' assumptions about most of their audience, as well as having the racial implications about standards of beauty.

    “This suggests that the hair products are aimed at women with hair that could pass the fi ne-tooth comb test, hair fine enough for the comb to go through without snagging - which may reflect the advertisers' assumptions about most of their audience, as well as having the racial implications about standards of beauty.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Managerial implications

    Whitewashing can promote racist practices and colourism that negatively affect our society and quality of life.

    “whitewashing is not just about manip­ ulating skin tones, but it can promote racist practices and colourism that negatively affect our society and quality of life.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation
    § Colourism manifested in whitewashing

    Racialisation is a four-step process.

    “Racialisation is a four-step process (Hoyt, 2016a, 2016b).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Hoyt, 2016a

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Hoyt, 2016b

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Policy Implications

    Black people were not represented in executive and upper-level positions, 'systematically favoring the dominate social group'.

    “Additionally, Black people were not represented in executive and upper-level positions, 'systematically favoring the dominate social group' (Davis, 2018, p. 141).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Davis, 2018 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given
    § Contributions

    The conceptual framework shows how the media marketplace can potentially reinforce negative perceptions of beauty.

    “Equally, the conceptual frame­ work shows how the media marketplace can potentially reinforce our negative percep­ tions of beauty.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning
    § Limitations and further research

    The study provides descriptive data and can make associations between variables, but cannot obtain the direction of the associations.

    “Descriptive data is provided, and associations can be made between variables; however, the direction of the associations cannot be obtained.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning
    § Limitations and further research

    The current content analysis cannot confirm the practice of whitewashing.

    “The current content analysis cannot confirm the practice of whitewashing; however, this study and the history of studies on colourism (skin tones) in print media marketing communications are strong indications of whitewashing as a manifestation of colourism, and that this practice may be more common than not.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Managerial implications

    Another study reported that White students felt uncomfortable receiving preferential treatment after taking a course about racism that included education on White privilege.

    “Another study reported that White students felt uncomfortable receiving preferential treatment after taking a course about racism that included education on White privilege (Kernahan & Davis, 2007).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kernahan & Davis, 2007 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Limitations and further research

    Black men may experience colourism differently than Black women.

    “Black men may experience colourism differently than Black women.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Limitations and further research

    Thompson and Keith (2001) found a strong association between skin tone and attractiveness for Black women, but that association was significantly weaker for Black men.

    “Thompson and Keith (2001) found a strong association between skin tone and attractive­ ness for Black women; however, that same associate was significantly weaker for Black men.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Thompson and Keith (2001) source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning
    § Limitations and further research

    The content analysis cannot draw conclusions on cause and effect.

    “It also cannot draw conclusions on cause and effect.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
57 of 57

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The brown paper bag test is a valid marker of passable skin tone for this study.

    “In the same manner, the methodology of this study employs the brown paper bag test as a marker of the passable skin tone.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    PMS 729 represents the brown paper bag skin tone.

    “PMS 729 represents the brown paper bag skin tone.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Essence magazine is targeted at Black women.

    “It is not surprising that Essence magazine, targeted at Black women, had the highest percentage of Black models.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Ebony is a pictorial news magazine targeted at Black people.

    “Ebony is a pictorial news magazine targeted at Black people”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Essence covers fashion, lifestyle, and beauty and thus more likely to feature product advertisements.

    “Essence covers fashion, lifestyle, and beauty and thus more likely to feature product advertisements.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Vogue and Elle are targeted at White women.

    “Although Black women consume Vogue and Elle , those magazines are targeted at White women.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The high percentage of unknown models is due to the expense of celebrity endorsements.

    “The high percentage of unknown models could be contributed to the expense of celebrity endorsements.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Black women are perceived as fashion trendsetters.

    “This retail focus may be attributed to Black women being perceived as fashion trendsetters.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Women between the ages of 35 and 49 are the most affluent, with an annual income of 50,000 USD and higher.

    “Women between the ages of 35 and 49 (the targeted age range for the magazines) are the most affluent, with an annual income of 50,000 USD and higher.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Thirty-nine percent of Black women depend on magazines to keep up with the latest fashions.

    “Thirty-nine percent of Black women stated they depend on magazines to keep up with the latest fashions.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Advertising has a significant influence on social constructs.

    “Advertising has a significant influence on social constructs.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The accusations of whitewashing indicate actual whitewashing.

    “the steady stream of allegations, does suggest that whitewashing may be a routine practice within marketing.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    There are no reports of Black men being whitewashed in the media as it has been with Black women.

    “Furthermore, there are no reports of Black men being whitewashed in the media as it has been with Black women.”
13 of 13

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • The media can serve to popularise, normalise, and perpetuate colourist ideas through the ways in which it both depicts and excludes minoritised ethnic people, and particularly women with dark skin.

    “In this article, we focus on how the media can serve to popularise, normalise, and perpetuate colourist ideas through the ways in which it both depicts (Harper and Choma, 2019) and excludes minoritised ethnic people, and particularly women with dark skin (Mitchell, 2020).”

    From Skin shade and relationships: how colourism pits Black and mixed Black-White women against each other (2024) · cites this paper as Mitchell, 2020

    The Discussion reports that dark-skinned Black women were rarely featured in print magazine ads and that marketers used light- and medium-skinned models far more often. This supports the claim about exclusion of dark-skinned women, but the paper examines Black women in print marketing rather than exclusion of minoritised ethnic people across media generally. Page numbers were not provided in the passages. (LLM, conf=0.84)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Statistics that don’t add up

Each reported p-value recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom.

  • Inconsistent p-value across alpha = .05: x 2 (18, N = 998) = 26.01, p = .047

    Major

    The paper reports p = .047 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .100. The two fall on opposite sides of alpha = .05. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.

    Reported p = .047 · recomputed p = .100

  • Inconsistent p-value: x 2 (6, N = 998) = 16.35, p = .011

    Minor

    The paper reports p = .011 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .012. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.

    Reported p = .011 · recomputed p = .012

2 of 2

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • Doesn’t add upχ²(18) = 26.01reported p = .047 · recomputed p = .100The two fall on opposite sides of .05

    “x 2 (18, N = 998) = 26.01, p = .047”

  • Doesn’t add upχ²(6) = 16.35reported p = .011 · recomputed p = .012

    “x 2 (6, N = 998) = 16.35, p = .011”

  • Consistentχ²(1) = 641reported p = 0 · recomputed p < .001

    “x 2 (1, N = 641) = 641, p = .000”

  • Consistentχ²(1) = 144reported p = 0 · recomputed p < .001

    “x 2 (1, N = 454) = 144, p = .000”

  • Consistentχ²(12) = 36.94reported p = 0 · recomputed p < .001

    “x 2 (12, N = 998) = 36.94, p = .000”

  • Consistentχ²(36) = 79reported p = 0 · recomputed p < .001

    “x 2 (36, N = 998) = 79.00, p = .000”

  • Consistentχ²(18) = 282.86reported p = 0 · recomputed p < .001

    “x 2 (18, N = 998) = 282.86, p = .000”

  • Consistentχ²(12) = 126.81reported p = 0 · recomputed p < .001

    “x 2 (12, N = 998) = 126.81, p = .000”

8 of 8

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Hair-product share exceeds the eligible skin-tone share

    Major

    The paper says only models with PMS 726 or 727 skin tones advertised hair products. Those shades can account for at most 8% of models: 36% had light skin tones, including the 28% classified as PMS 728. They therefore cannot account for the reported 20% of models advertising hair products.

  • Medium-versus-dark chi-square implies no dark-skin models

    Minor

    For a two-category comparison of counts, a chi-square statistic equal to the total sample size occurs only when one category has no observations. The paper reports a statistic of 641 for 641 medium- and dark-skin models, while also reporting that 10% of all models had dark skin tones.

2 of 2

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 14

  1. Associated Press, 2008, Toronto Star (Canada), E09
  2. Association of National Advertisers, &amp; Alliance for Inclusive and Multicultural Marketing (AIMM), 2018, A diversity report for the advertising/marketing industry
  3. Begedou K., 2015, Decolonizing the mind and fostering self-esteem: Fanon and Morrison on skin lightening practices in the African diaspora
  4. Bendick M., 2009, Research perspectives on race and employment in the advertising industry
  5. Harris A. P., 2008, Journal of African-American Law & Policy, 10, 52
  6. Hoyt C., 2016, The arc of a bad idea: Understanding and transcending race
  7. Keith V. M., 2009, A colorstruck world: Skin tone, achievement, and self-esteem among African American women
  8. Kerr A. E., 2006, The paper bag principle: Class, colorism, and rumor and the case of Black Washington
  9. Martinez A. Y., 2014, Frame: Journal of Literary Studies, 27, 9
  10. Media, PQ., Quinn, P. & Kivijarv, L. (2018).Global advertising & marketing revenue forecast 2018-22(Custom Media Report No. 6th Edition). PQ Media
  11. Nielsen, 2017, African-American women: Our science, her magic (Diverse Intelligence Series)
  12. Russell K., 1992, The color complex: The politics of skin color among African Americans (1st ed.)
  13. Schweizer P., 2006, Do as i say (not as i do): Profiles in Liberal hypocrisy
  14. Yuen N. W., 2017, Hollywood actors and racism.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Mitchell, T. A.
Affiliations
James Madison University (US)
Corresponding author
Mitchell, Talé A.
ORCID
Mitchell, Talé A.
Venue
Journal of Marketing Management
Publisher
Informa UK Limited
Published
2020-08-19
Volume
36
Issue
13-14
Pages
1366-1389
ISSN
  • 0267-257X (ISSN-L)
  • 1472-1376
DOI
10.1080/0267257x.2020.1794934
OpenAlex
W3058122942
Semantic Scholar
15066ae84fccf74e52423e224203a6b63e1e5ad2
Cited by
55
References
76
Citations by year
2026: 7 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 2
FWCI
10.04
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Locations
Journal of Marketing Management (publishedVersion)
Funders
support this research
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Media, Gender, and Advertising
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Critical Race Theory in Education
  • Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Marketing › Marketing and Advertising Strategies
Keywords
colorism, critical race theory, whitewashing, Black women, skin tone representation, marketing communication, racism, beauty standards

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-11.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-11.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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