Critical race theory, race and gender microaggressions, and the experience of Chicana and Chicano scholars

“…and gender microaggressions 123 draws explicitly on the person of color’s lived experiences by including such methods as storytelling, family history, biographies, scenarios, parables, cuentos, chronicles, and narratives (Bell, 1987 ; Carrasco, 1996 ; Delgado, 1989, 1995a, b, 1996 ; Olivas, 1990).”

“Thank you to Daniel G Solórzano who originally conceptualized cultural wealth.”

“To accomplish this task, we borrow from the works of Strauss and Corbin (1990) and Dolores Delgado Bernal (1998).”

“…visible members of one’s own racial/ethnic and/or gender group who actively demonstrate a commitment to social justice, whereas transformational mentors use the aforementioned traits and their own experiences and expertise to help guide the development of others (Blackwell, 1988; Solorzano, 1998b).”

“Therefore, it is important to note that each of the defining elements “is not new in and of itself, but collectively, they represent a challenge to the existing modes of scholarship” (Solórzano, 1998, p. 123).”

“Solorzano (1998) writes, ‘‘Although race and racism are at the center of a critical race analysis, they are also viewed at their intersection with other forms of subordination such as gender and class discrimination’’ (p. 122).”

“Though very little research examines how race-based stress affects Latina/o college students, one significant mixed-method study by Daniel Muñoz (1986) found that racialized stress is also gendered.”

“The stories of these students were similar in many ways to those of Chicana/ Chicano graduate students also studied by Solorzano (1998).”

“CRT challenges a Eurocentric epistemological perspective by recognizing people of color as creators and holders of knowledge that may challenge and critique mainstream traditions (Delgado Bernal, 2002; LadsonBillings, 2000; Solórzano, 1998).”

“…2008; Yosso 2006; Dixson and Rousseau 2005; Parker and Stovall 2005; Brayboy 2005; Bernal and Villalpando 2005; Ladson-Billings 2004; Taylor 1998; Solorzano 1998; Tate 1997; Ladson-Billings and Tate 1995) and the other a resurgent interest in the work of W.E.B. Du Bois (Alridge 1999, 2008;…”

“This is very similar to articles by Solórzano (1998), Gonzalez (1998), Tanaka and Cruz (1998), and others in this issue (for example, Fernandez, 2002 [this issue]).”

“…experiences (Croom & Patton, 2011- 2012; Delgado Bernal & Villalpando, 2002; Hughes & Giles, 2010; Patton & Bondi, 2015; Patton & Catching, 2009; Solórzano, 1998) and student experiences (Delgado Bernal, 2002; Donner, 2005; Gildersleeve, Croom, & Vasquez, 2011; Patton, 2006; Villalpando, 2003).”

“CRT is an explanatory framework that accounts for the role of race and racism in education and works toward identifying and challenging racism as a larger goal of identifying and challenging all forms of subordination.2 Specifically, Solorzano (1998) outlines five tenants of CRT that guide the use of this framework.”

“CRT within education is an evolving methodological, conceptual, and theoretical construct that attempts to disrupt race and racism in education (Solorzano, 1998).”

“…we have come to the realization that those who are racially marginalized often experience racism in both overt and covert ways (Allen and Solórzano 2001; Smith, Yosso, and Solórzano 2007; Solórzano 1998; Solórzano, Allen, and Carroll 2002; Solórzano, Ceja, and Yosso 2001; Yosso et al., in press).”

“…in education is relatively new (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995; Lynn, Yosso, Solórzano, & Parker, 2002; Parker, Deyhle, Villenas, & Crosland Nebeker, 1998; Solórzano, 1997, 1998; Solórzano & Delgado Bernal, 2001; Solórzano & Villalpando, 1998; Solórzano & Yosso, 2000, 2001; Tate, 1994, 1997).”

“Interviews were scheduled to last about 2 hours but often lasted much longer because of the participants’ emotionally laden recollection of their experiences and their decision to speak for the first time about difficult or traumatic experiences that they perceived as prior microaggressions (Solórzano, 1998).”

“Both of these pieces build off of the influential work of scholars Ladson-Billings and Tate (1995) and Solorzano (1998), who pioneered the application of CRT to the study of K-12 and higher education, respectively.”

“…frameworks in educational research (Ladson-Billings, 1998; Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995; Lynn, 1999; Parker, 1998; Solórzano, 1997; Tate, 1997).10 Solórzano (1998) outlines five tenets of CRT in education as follows: (a) the centrality and intersectionality of race and racism, (b) the challenge…”

“…realizing students’ kindness, curiosity, and intelligence—might be reasonably classified as reflecting impoverished views of culture (Gutiérrez & Rogoff, 2003) and inflicting “subtle and covert,” yet insidious expressions of racism—what Solorzano (1998) has called “racial microagressions” (p. 124).”

“In confronting hegemonic social dynamics, CRT in education explicitly starts from the premise that race and racism play central roles in structuring inequality and relationships of power and subordination in education (Solórzano, 1998).”

“According to Solórzano (1998), “CRT recognizes that the experiential knowledge of women and men of color is legitimate, appropriate, and critical to understanding, analyzing, and teaching about racial subordination in the field of education” (p. 122).”

“More recently, CRT scholars of education have borrowed this term to discuss the covert forms of systemic racism that exist in educational institutions (Allen & Solórzano, 2001; Smith et al., 2007; Solórzano, 1998; Solórzano, Allen, & Carroll, 2002).”

“…the pervasive manner in which many Black males, oftentimes at the earliest ages of primary school, are given deleterious labels and are victims of persistent microaggressions (Solorzano, 1998), which suggest that they are not worthy of the very programs deemed to assist those in greatest need.”

“Through a counter-hegemonic curricula that focuses on youth culture and resistance (Giroux, 1983; Morrell & Duncan-Andrade, 2002; Solórzano, 1998), racial identity and social reproduction (Akom, 2006, 2008b), and counter-narratives (Akom, 2003; Solórzano & Delgado Bernal, 2001), students of color are able to provide a…”

“Racial hierarchies are legitimized through an ideology that positions one race as superordinate to all others (Solórzano, 1998; Solórzano & Yosso, 2002b).”

“BUILDING A CRITICAL RACE PARADIGM IN EDUCATION Recently, a number of scholars in the field of education have applied Critical Race analyses to educational issues (LadsonBillings, 1998; Solorzano, 1997, 1998; Solorzano & Villalpando, 1998; Solorzano & Yosso, 1998; Tate, 1997).”

“…framework to address these issues and draws from a broad race and ethnic relations literature base in law, sociology, history, and the field of education (see Ladson-Billings, 1996; Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995; Solorzano, 1997, 1998; Solorzano & Yosso, 2000; Solorzano & Ornelas, 2002; Tate, 1997).”

“…interest as a tool to help educators understand how race and racism shape the educational pipeline (see Ladson-Billings, 1996; Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995; Lynn, 1999; Smith, 2004; Solórzano, 1997, 1998; Solórzano & Yosso, 2001, 2002; Tate, 1997; Villalpando & Delgado Bernal, 2002; Yosso, 2006).”

“Qualitative research has used counterstories and other methods to discuss educational issues such as college choice, racial campus climate, microaggressions, challenges to affirmative action, and the experiences of students and faculty of color in schools and universities (DeCuir & Dixson, 2004; Solorzano, 1998; Solor…”

“These subtle verbal and nonverbal insults target people of color often automatically or unconsciously (Pierce, 1970, 1974, 1995; Solórzano, 1998; Solórzano et al., 2000).”

“…have found that black and Latina/o students’ experiences in doctoral education is complicated by race, racialization, and racism inherent in the social practice of higher education (Allen, 1992; D’Augelli & Hershberger, 1993; Lewis et al., 2004; Nettles, Thoeny, & Gosman, 1986; Solórzano, 1998).”

“For her, this manifests as support of culturally, linguistically, and positionally different groups through consensus building to identify shared goals toward social justice and equity for the largest number of students (Gooden, 2010; Parker & Villalpando, 2007; Solórzano, 1998).”

“1 Microaggressions are subtle, possibly unconscious, automatic insults to individuals from historically marginalized groups (Solórzano, 1998).”

“…racism • The challenge to dominant ideology • The commitment to social justice • The centrality of experiential knowledge • The interdisciplinary perspective (Solórzano 1998, 122–3) This theoretical framework has been applied as an activist-oriented means of empowering communities of color that…”

“…dominant ideology, (c) the commitment to social justice, (d) the centrality of experiential knowledge, and (e) a transdisciplinary perspective (D. Solórzano, 1997, 1998; D. Solórzano & Delgado Bernal, in press; D. Solórzano & Yosso, 2001, 2002 [this issue]).3 Although these themes are not new in…”

“…on Multicultural Education Recently, several scholars in the field of education have applied critical race analyses (which come out of legal studies) to education including Ladson-Billings (1998), Ladson-Billings and Tate (1995), Solorzano (1997, 1998), Solorzano and Yosso (2000), and Tate (1997).”

“Intersectionality: A. Solorzano (1998) wrote, “although race and racism are at the center of a critical race analysis, they are also viewed at their intersection with other forms of subordination, such as gender and class discrimination” (p. 122).”

“It is being extended in areas such as education (International Journal of Qualatative Studies in Education, 1998; Ladson-Billings, 1996; Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995; Solórzano, 1997, 1998; Tate, 1997) and women’s studies (Wing, 1997).”

“…that faculty of color often face as well as hostile racial climates and racial profiling that students of color encounter at PWIs (see e.g., Patton, 2006; Solórzano, 1998; Solórzano & Yosso, 2000; Taylor, 2000; Teranishi, Behringer, Grey, & Parker, 2009; Villalpando & Delgado Bernal, 2002).”

“In addition, CRT weaves its analysis with other factors of subordination such as sexism (Delgado Bernal, 2002; Solórzano, 1998), nativism (Perez Huber, 2010), and ableism (Annamma, Connor, & Ferri, 2013).”

“In addition to calling attention to the centrality and intersectional nature of racism, CRT challenges dominant ideologies suggesting that professional advancement is based on objective assessments of merit and worthiness (Delgado, 1995; Solórzano, 1998).”

“The microagressions ( Solorzano, 1998 ) found in the dictionary and in the classroom are merely reflections of the highly organized, historical relationships that have utilized the social constructions of race, class, gender, sexuality, and immigration status to separate people and assign them disparate value.”

“…ethnic and women’s studies, and sociology, ‘‘a critical race theory in education challenges ahistoricism and the unidisciplinary focus of most analyses, and insists on analyzing race and racism in education by placing them in both a historical and contemporary context’’ (Solórzano, 1998, p. 123).”

“Finally, CRT continuously critiques dominant ideol ogies that use neutrality, objectivity, and colorblindness to camouflage the socially constructed meanings of race and feed into selfinterest, power, and privilege (Bergerson, 2003; Solorzano, 1998).”

“Solórzano (1997, 1998) and Solórzano and Yosso (2001) looked at using CRT in higher education settings, first as a theoretical framework to examine teacher education racial discourse about the abilities of children of color, and then to look at its cumulative impact on Chicano–Chicana fellowship…”

“This has led to the emergence of several offshoots of CRT: LatCrit (e.g., Delgado Bernal, 2001, 2002; Solórzano, 1998; Solórzano & Delgado Bernal, 2001), AsianCrit (e.”

“Micro-aggressions include subtle or unconscious forms of sexism, racism and xenophobia such as verbal, nonverbal and/or visual insults that LGBT youth confront daily (Solorzano, 1998; Solorzano, Ceja & Yosso, 2000).”

“…dominance” (p. 496) coupled with Marable’s (1992), “[A] system of ignorance, exploitation, and power to oppress African Americans, Latinos, Asians, Pacific Americans, and American Indians and other people on the basis of ethnicity, culture, mannerisms, and color” (cited in Solórzano, 1998, p. 124).”

“Since Pierce’s initial work on racial microaggressions, researchers from various fields have further developed the concept (Davis 1989; Solorzano, 1998; Solorzano, Allen, and Carroll 2002; Smith, Yosso, and Solorzano 2006; Constantine 2007; Constantine and Sue 2007; Smith, Daley, and Allen 2007;…”

“…player recruitment and team selection, the investigation centers on racism as discourse—namely, the presence and effects of “racial microaggressions” (Solórzano, 1998; Sue, 2010; Sue, Capodilupo, Torino, Bucceri, Holder, Nadal & Esquilin, 2007) within player interactions such as locker-room…”

“CRT scholars challenge the traditional claims by the education system to objectivity, neutrality, meritocracy, and equal opportunity (Solorzano, 1998).”

“As Solórzano (1998) explains, “A critical race theory in education challenges the dominant discourse on race and racism as they relate to education by examining how educational theory, policy, and practice are used to subordinate certain racial and ethnic groups” (p. 122).”

“Recently, a number of scholars in the field of education have applied critical race analyses to educational issues (Ladson-Billings, 1995, 1998; Solórzano, 1997, 1998, Solórzano & Villalpando, 1998; Solórzano & Yosso, 2000, Tate, 1997).”

“Solórzano (1998) adds commitment to social justice and an interdisciplinary perspective to these tenets and notes that in education, CRT challenges dominant education theory, discourse, policy, and practice.”

“As we consider this finding, it is useful to draw upon both critical race theories (Solórzano, 1998) and intersectionality theories (Cole, 2009; Syed, 2010).”

“Students in this study expressed awareness that the United States is a highly racialized society (Solórzano, 1998), but they themselves did not feel connected to that aspect of society.”

“For example, some studies (Gay, 2004; Gildersleeve et al., 2011; Solórzano, 1998) have found that students experienced intellectual isolation as a result of faculty members guiding them away from particular research topics, low faculty expectations, and peers’ unwillingness to engage them in…”

“…traction within educational research as scholars have sought to better understand the role of race, racism, and racialization in the educational experiences and outcomes for communities of color (Dixson & Rousseau, 2006; Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995; Lynn, 1999; Milner, 2008; Solórzano, 1998).”

“Scholars using CRT challenge dominant discourses on race and culture and examine the way racism and its intersection with other forms of oppression contribute to how educational policy and practices are used to subordinate certain racial groups (Crenshaw et al., 1995; Solorzano, 1998).”

“Much of this burden has also been associated with the experiences of beginning professors of color (Garrison-Wade et al. 2012; Solórzano 1998; Turner 2002), but to date has not been associated with early childhood pre-service teachers.”

“This finding supports prior research that found racialized stress negatively impacted the psychological stress responses of Latina/o students and students of color in general (Hurtado & Carter, 1997; Hwang & Goto, 2008; Solórzano, 1998).”

“Relying on CRT history, I define intersectionality based on three considerations: one is the extent to which scholars address race across races (Solórzano, 1998).”

“They used the term “microaggressions” (Delgado, 1992; Solorzano, 1998) to describe those unconscious or subtle forms of racism that people of color recognize and absorb on a daily basis.”

“Solórzano (1998) asserted that while some racialized experiences, including racial microaggressions, are similar between African-American and Chicana/o students, these experiences also diverge in many ways (Solórzano 1998).”

“…mid-1990s, researchers defined CRT in education as “a set of . . . perspectives, methods, and pedagogy that seeks to identify, analyze, and transform those structural, cultural, and interpersonal aspects of education that maintain the subordination of [students] of color” (Solórzano 1998, 123).”

“First, CRT scholarship in postsecondary education has functioned to illuminate the voices of people of color within academia (e.g., Bonner et al., 2014; Espino,Muñoz, &Kiyama, 2010; Solórzano, 1998; Solórzano, Ceja, & Yosso, 2000).”