A comparison of cognitive restructuring and cognitive defusion as strategies for resisting a craved food
Abstract
The present study investigated the effectiveness of two cognitive strategies for resisting a craved food. One-hundred-and-ten self-identified chocolate cravers were randomised to a waiting list control condition or to receive a 60-minute standardised group intervention on cognitive restructuring (CR) or cognitive defusion (CD). All participants were provided with a bag of chocolates which they were instructed to carry with them for seven days and try to resist eating; uneaten chocolates were returned at the end of the study period. Measures included chocolate consumption and other behavioural, cognitive and evaluative self-reported outcomes. Overall, the odds of abstinence from chocolate were 3.26 times higher for participants in the CD than the CR condition. The effect of the interventions depended on baseline cognitive distress levels; for individuals at high levels of cognitive distress the CD condition led to significantly more restraint from chocolate than both the CR and control conditions. In addition, CD led to greater self-reported improvements in eating behaviours during the study period and was rated significantly easier to use and apply than CR. CD is discussed as a simple and efficient approach to manage food cravings and, potentially, other behavioural contributors to obesity.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Some studies have found defusion to be significantly more effective for managing negative thoughts as well as for reducing acting on food cravings.
“Some studies have found defusion to be significantly more effective for managing negative thoughts as well as for reducing acting on food cravings (Larsson et al., 2015; Moffitt et al., 2012).”
From Effects of Cognitive Restructuring and Defusion for Coping with Difficult Thoughts in a Predominantly White Female College Student Sample (2022) · cites this paper as Moffitt et al., 2012
Cites
1 retracted
Psychological interventions for overweight or obesity
Shaw, K. A., O'Rourke, P., Del Mar, C., & Kenardy, J. (2005) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd003818.pub2 · Cited by 442 · see citing works
RetractedTabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (1983) · Cited by 79,888 · see citing works
Gross, J. J., & John, O. P. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.348 · Cited by 11,929 · cited 4× · see citing works
“…– a form of cognitive change ‘that involves construing a potentially emotion-eliciting situation in a way that changes its emotional impact’ (Gross & John, 2003, p. 349) – were associated with greater avoidance behaviours than attempts to accept and more willingly experience these…”
BackgroundInfluential(2007) · Cited by 10,092 · see citing works
(1975) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 7,245 · see citing works
Acceptance and commitment therapy: model, processes and outcomes
Hayes, S. C., Luoma, J. B., Bond, F. W., Masuda, A., & Lillis, J. (2006) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2005.06.006 · Cited by 6,587 · cited 9× · see citing works
“engaging in counterproductive behaviours to alleviate these experiences (Forman et al., 2007; Hayes et al., 2006; Juarascio et al., 2010).”
BackgroundInfluential(1999) · Cited by 5,934 · see citing works
Cognitive Therapy and the Emotional Disorders
Ince, L. P. (1977) · American Journal of Psychotherapy · doi:10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.1977.31.4.633 · Cited by 2,889 · see citing works
Hayes, S. C. (2004) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7894(04)80013-3 · Cited by 2,493 · see citing works
Measuring experiential avoidance: A preliminary test of a working model
Hayes, S. C., Strosahl, K., Wilson, K. G., Bissett, R. T., Pistorello, J., Toarmino, D., Polusny, M. A., Dykstra, T. A., Batten, S. V., Bergan, J., et al. (2004) · The Psychological Record · doi:10.1007/bf03395492 · Cited by 2,140 · see citing works
Cognitive self-statements in depression: Development of an automatic thoughts questionnaire
Hollon, S. D., & Kendall, P. C. (1980) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/bf01178214 · Cited by 1,482 · see citing works
Binge Eating: Nature, Assessment and Treatment
Hanson, K., & Pasulka, P. S. (1994) · Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition · doi:10.1177/014860719401800419 · Cited by 1,166 · see citing works
Gregg, J. A., Callaghan, G. M., Hayes, S. C., & Glenn-Lawson, J. L. (2007) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.75.2.336 · Cited by 695 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Several studies have also found evidence for holistic ACT interventions incorporating CD strategies for managing weight and eating behaviours specifically (e.g. Forman, Butryn, Hoffman, & Herbert, 2009; Gregg et al., 2007; Lillis, Hayes, Bunting, & Masuda, 2009; Tapper et al., 2009).”
BackgroundAcceptance and mindfulness-based therapy: New wave or old hat?
Hofmann, S. G., & Asmundson, G. J. G. (2008) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2007.09.003 · Cited by 665 · cited 3× · see citing works
“Successful restructuring of food-related cognitions is also arguably difficult to achieve (Hofmann & Asmundson, 2008).”
BackgroundInfluential(2009) · Cited by 655 · see citing works
(2010) · Redalyc (Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México) · Cited by 542 · see citing works
Acceptance-based treatment for smoking cessation
Gifford, E. V., Kohlenberg, B. S., Hayes, S. C., Antonuccio, D. O., Piasecki, M. M., Rasmussen-Hall, M. L., & Palm, K. M. (2004) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7894(04)80015-7 · Cited by 499 · see citing works
The development and validation of the state and trait food-cravings questionnaires
Cepeda-Benito, A., Gleaves, D. H., Williams, T. L., & Erath, S. A. (2000) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7894(00)80009-x · Cited by 489 · see citing works
(1993) · Cited by 468 · see citing works
Lillis, J., Hayes, S. C., Bunting, K., & Masuda, A. (2009) · Annals of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s12160-009-9083-x · Cited by 459 · see citing works
(1989) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 451 · see citing works
Exploratory randomised controlled trial of a mindfulness-based weight loss intervention for women
Tapper, K., Shaw, C., Ilsley, J., Hill, A. J., Bond, F. W., & Moore, L. (2009) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2008.11.012 · Cited by 366 · see citing works
Dysfunctional control by client verbal behavior: The context of reason-giving
Zettle, R. D., & Hayes, S. C. (1986) · The Analysis of Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1007/bf03392813 · Cited by 326 · see citing works
Masuda, A., Hayes, S. C., Sackett, C. F., & Twohig, M. P. (2004) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2003.10.008 · Cited by 317 · see citing works
Forman, E. M., Hoffman, K. L., McGrath, K. B., Herbert, J. D., Brandsma, L. L., & Lowe, M. R. (2007) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2007.04.004 · Cited by 295 · cited 14× · see citing works
“engaging in counterproductive behaviours to alleviate these experiences (Forman et al., 2007; Hayes et al., 2006; Juarascio et al., 2010).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialEating Motives and the Controversy over Dieting: Eating Less Than Needed versus Less Than Wanted
Lowe, M. R., & Levine, A. S. (2005) · Obesity Research · doi:10.1038/oby.2005.90 · Cited by 293 · see citing works
Rozin, P. N., Levine, E. K., & Stoess, C. (1991) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/0195-6663(91)90022-k · Cited by 292 · see citing works
Wolgast, M., Lundh, L.-G., & Viborg, G. (2011) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2011.09.011 · Cited by 278 · see citing works
(2005) · Cited by 262 · see citing works
An Open Trial of an Acceptance-Based Behavioral Intervention for Weight Loss
Forman, E. M., Butryn, M. L., Hoffman, K. L., & Herbert, J. D. (2009) · Cognitive and Behavioral Practice · doi:10.1016/j.cbpra.2008.09.005 · Cited by 211 · see citing works
Cognitive Behaviour Therapy for Eating Disorders
Cooper, Z., & Shafran, R. (2008) · Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1017/s1352465808004736 · Cited by 201 · see citing works
Baranowski, T., Cerin, E., & Baranowski, J. C. (2009) · International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity · doi:10.1186/1479-5868-6-6 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
Juarascio, A. S., Forman, E. M., & Herbert, J. D. (2010) · Behavior Modification · doi:10.1177/0145445510363472 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Radical behavioral psychotherapy: Two contemporary examples
Kohlenberg, R. J., Hayes, S. C., & Tsai, M. (1993) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/0272-7358(93)90047-p · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Healy, H.-A., Barnes-Holmes, Y., Barnes-Holmes, D., Keogh, C., Luciano, C., & Wilson, K. (2008) · The Psychological Record · doi:10.1007/bf03395641 · Cited by 87 · cited 4× · see citing works
“In contrast, when individuals defuse from their thoughts and view these thoughts from a detached perspective they are less likely to be taken literally and to dominate behaviour (Harris, 2009; Hayes, Luoma, Bond, Masuda, & Lillis, 2006; Healy et al., 2008).”
BackgroundInfluentialTemporal self-regulation theory: looking forward
Hall, P. A., & Fong, G. T. (2010) · Health Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/17437199.2010.487180 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Fennell, M. J. V. (1989) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med:psych/9780192615879.003.0006 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Effect of exposure to a forbidden food on eating in restrained and unrestrained women
Stirling, L. J., & Yeomans, M. R. (2003) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.10232 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
A Cognitive Experimental Approach to Understanding and Reducing Food Cravings
Kemps, E., & Tiggemann, M. (2010) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721410364494 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Cognitive Behavioural Therapy Workbook for Dummies
Branch, R., & Willson, R. (2008) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Radomile, R. R. (2000) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/10352-004 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
1 of the 42 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
(2012) · Re-Unir (International University of La Rioja) · Cited by 262 · see citing works
Mindfulness and craving: effects and mechanisms
Tapper, K. (2018) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2017.11.003 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Mindful eating: what we know so far
Tapper, K. (2022) · Nutrition Bulletin · doi:10.1111/nbu.12559 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
The effects of three mindfulness skills on chocolate cravings
Lacaille, J., Ly, J., Zacchia, N., Bourkas, S., Glaser, E., & Knaüper, B. (2014) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2014.01.072 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Can mindfulness influence weight management related eating behaviors? If so, how?
Tapper, K. (2017) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2017.03.003 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Techniques for modifying impulsive processes associated with unhealthy eating: A systematic review.
van Beurden, S. B., Greaves, C. J., Smith, J. R., & Abraham, C. (2016) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/hea0000337 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Cognitive defusion in acceptance and commitment therapy: What are the basic processes of change?
Assaz, D. A., Roche, B., Kanter, J. W., & Oshiro, C. K. B. (2018) · The Psychological Record · doi:10.1007/s40732-017-0254-z · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Resisting chocolate temptation using a brief mindfulness strategy
Jenkins, K., & Tapper, K. (2013) · British Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjhp.12050 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Comparing cognitive fusion and cognitive reappraisal as predictors of college student mental health
Krafft, J., Haeger, J. A., & Levin, M. E. (2019) · Cognitive Behaviour Therapy · doi:10.1080/16506073.2018.1513556 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Davis, M. L., Witcraft, S. M., Baird, S. O., & Smits, J. A. J. (2017) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-803457-6.00003-9 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Fisher, N. R., Lattimore, P. J., & Malinowski, P. (2015) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2015.12.009 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Beadman, M., Das, R. K., Freeman, T. P., Scragg, P., West, R., & Kamboj, S. K. (2015) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2015.03.013 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Treatment Beliefs and Preferences for Psychological Therapies for Weight Management
Moffitt, R. L., Haynes, A., & Mohr, P. B. (2015) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.22157 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Self-citationMoffitt, R., & Mohr, P. (2015) · British Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjhp.12098 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Self-citationSchumacher, S., Kemps, E., & Tiggemann, M. (2017) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2017.02.012 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Mindfulness Reduces Reactivity to Food Cues: Underlying Mechanisms and Applications in Daily Life
Keesman, M., Aarts, H., Häfner, M., & Papies, E. K. (2017) · Current Addiction Reports · doi:10.1007/s40429-017-0134-2 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Levin, M. E., Haeger, J., An, W., & Twohig, M. P. (2018) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-018-9944-3 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Laboratory‐based interventions targeting food craving: A systematic review and meta‐analysis
Wolz, I., Nannt, J., & Svaldi, J. (2020) · Obesity Reviews · doi:10.1111/obr.12996 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Hensels, I. S., & Baines, S. (2016) · Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/j.lmot.2016.05.005 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Blau, L. E., Lipsky, L. M., Dempster, K. W., Eisenberg, M. H., Siega‐Riz, A. M., Faith, M. S., & Nansel, T. R. (2019) · Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics · doi:10.1016/j.jand.2019.09.020 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Schumacher, S., Kemps, E., & Tiggemann, M. (2018) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2018.05.018 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
The decentering component of mindfulness reduces reactions to mental imagery.
Keesman, M., Aarts, H., Häfner, M., & Papies, E. K. (2020) · Motivation Science · doi:10.1037/mot0000137 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Cognitive Restructuring vs. Defusion: Impact on craving, healthy and unhealthy food intake
Karekla, M., Georgiou, N., Panayiotou, G., Sandoz, E. K., Kurz, A. S., & Constantinou, M. (2020) · Eating Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2020.101385 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Forbes, Y., Moffitt, R. L., Bokkel, M. V., & Donovan, C. L. (2020) · Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1891/jcpsy-d-20-00015 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Self-citationEffects of olfactory sense on chocolate craving
Firmin, M. W., Shell, A. L., Hobbs, T. E., & Wu, D. (2016) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2016.07.004 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Hofmann, W., Kotabe, H., Vohs, K. D., & Baumeister, R. F. (2015) · Cited by 17 · see citing works
(2021) · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780197550076.013.9 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Krafft, J., Klimczak, K. S., & Levin, M. E. (2022) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-021-10242-4 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Hinojosa-Aguayo, I., & González, F. (2022) · The Spanish Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1017/sjp.2021.47 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Tapper, K., & Ahmed, Z. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00587 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Chang, B. P. I., Mulders, M. D. G. H., Cserjési, R., Cleeremans, A., & Klein, O. (2018) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2018.08.013 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Themed issue: Plans, norms, motivation, and cheating a little – The curious case of healthy eating
de Ridder, D. T. D. (2012) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2012.721957 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Hulbert‐Williams, L., Hulbert-Williams, N. J., Nicholls, W., Williamson, S., Poonia, J., & Hochard, K. D. (2017) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/1359105317695424 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Self‐compassionate reflective writing for affect regulation in Australian perinatal women
Angus, B. M., Saling, L. L., & Moffitt, R. L. (2023) · Applied Psychology Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1111/aphw.12514 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationDisordered Gambling: The Effects of a Brief, Online Cognitive Intervention in an Australian Sample
Ellison, L. J., Vale, K., & Ladouceur, R. (2017) · OALib · doi:10.4236/oalib.1103288 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Levin, M. E., Krafft, J., An, W., Ong, C. W., & Twohig, M. P. (2021) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2021.02.002 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) for Insomnia
Johann, A. F., & Hertenstein, E. (2022) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119891192.ch18 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
The Drexel Defusion Scale: Reliability and Validity of the Turkish Version
Aydın, G., & Güneri, O. Y. (2021) · Sakarya University Journal of Education · doi:10.19126/suje.770582 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Zolfaghari, S., & Sadeghi, M. (2019) · Journal of Gerontology · doi:10.29252/joge.3.4.5 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
da Rosa, I. F., Heinen, M., de Freitas, B. I., Guedes, P. A., Alano, D. D. S., & Oliveira, M. D. S. (2022) · Revista Brasileira de Terapia Comportamental e Cognitiva · doi:10.31505/rbtcc.v23i1.1567 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Interventionen zur Regulation von Food Craving: Eine Übersicht
Nannt, J., Wolz, I., & Svaldi, J. (2018) · Zeitschrift für Psychiatrie Psychologie und Psychotherapie · doi:10.1024/1661-4747/a000370 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Boyd, L. A. (2016) · ThinkTech (Texas Tech University) · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Examining Sexuality-Based Stereotypes Through a Relational Density Theory Framework
Lee, B., & Paliliunas, D. (2025) · Behavior and Social Issues · doi:10.1007/s42822-025-00220-w · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Desfusão cognitva na Terapia de Aceitação e Compromisso (ACT): o processo de mudança clínica
Assaz, D. A. (2020) · Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations (Universidade de São Paulo) · doi:10.11606/t.47.2020.tde-24122021-113814 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Verbesserung der Lebensqualität durch Akzeptanz und CommitmentTherapie
Hertenstein, E., Johann, A. F., Spiegelhalder, K., Riemann, D. W., & Nissen, C. (2015) · NeuroTransmitter · doi:10.1007/s15016-015-5375-5
khakshoorShandiZ, F., Sodagar, S., anani, F., malihiazkr, S., & Zarban, A. (2020) · journal of counseling research · doi:10.29252/jcr.19.75.5 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Investigating Determinants of Client Psychotherapy Preference: An Analog Study
Lyons, G. A., Zettle, R. D., & Petts, R. A. (2024) · Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1891/jcp-2022-0041
Cognitive Defusion and Its Application Research
黄, 楚. (2024) · Advances in Psychology · doi:10.12677/ap.2024.144198
The impact of a cognitive defusion intervention on behavioral and psychological flexibility
Ritzert, T. R. (2014) · Scholars Archive - University at Albany (University at Albany, State University of New York) · doi:10.54014/dc6h-ehej
Understanding personal health thresholds: a conceptual framework for health education
Li, S. (2025) · Health Education · doi:10.1108/he-03-2025-0034
Hooper, N. (2013) · ORCA Online Research @Cardiff (Cardiff University)
- Authors
- Moffitt, R., Brinkworth, G., Noakes, M., & Mohr, P.
- Affiliations
- Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Moffitt, Robyn
- Venue
- Psychology & Health
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2012-10
- Volume
- 27
- Issue
- sup2
- Pages
- 74-90
- ISSN
- 0887-0446 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-8321
- OpenAlex
- W1988688672
- Cited by
- 51
- References
- 42
- Citations by year
- 2025: 2 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 4 · 2015: 5 · 2014: 3 · 2013: 2 · 2012: 2
- FWCI
- 4.34
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychology and Health (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Victoria University Research Repository (Victoria University) (submittedVersion)
- Research Bank (Australian Catholic University) (submittedVersion)
- RMIT Research Repository (RMIT University Library) (submittedVersion)
- Adelaide Research & Scholarship (AR&S) (University of Adelaide) (submittedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion)
- Griffith Research Online (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Eating Disorders and Behaviors
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
- Keywords
- cognitive restructuring, cognitive defusion, food cravings, chocolate craving, eating behaviour, obesity, group intervention, self-regulation
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Australia, Cognition, Eating, Female, Food Preferences, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Surveys and Questionnaires, Repression, Psychology, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
