Influence of artificial intelligence tools on higher order thinking skills: a meta-analysis
Abstract
The use of artificial intelligence (AI) has received scholarly attention and is becoming a common trend in the field of education, while the cultivation of higher order thinking (HOT) skills still remains as one of the crucial educational objectives. Recent years have seen substantial amount of research exploring the influence of Artificial Intelligence in Education (AIEd) use on each HOT skills of students, which necessitated a systematic review to amalgamate the findings quantitatively. This meta-analysis study set out to explore the effect of AIEd on students’ separate HOT skills and identify the effect of potential moderator variables. The analysis included 29 articles with a total of 2.966 participants between the years of 2000 and 2023. This research confirmed the use of AIEd had a medium positive effect on skills classified as HOT skills. The findings suggested that instructional settings which incorporated AI technologies enhanced students’ HOT skills 9.3% higher. This review also found that the variables of country, year of publication and AI tool/agent moderated the magnitude of effect sizes significantly. The findings offer extensive examination of AI technologies in educational settings and contribute to understanding of how and to what extent they influence students’ HOT skills.
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The central boundary condition is that learning benefits depend on how learners interact with mediation-when students engage with AI outputs by questioning, comparing drafts, rejecting or adapting suggestions, and justifying compositional choices, the interaction constitutes active mediated learning rather than passive text transfer.
“However, the central boundary condition is that learning benefits depend on how learners interact with mediation—when students engage with AI outputs by questioning, comparing drafts, rejecting or adapting suggestions, and justifying compositional choices, the interaction constitutes active mediated learning rather than passive text transfer (Garzón et al., 2025; Ilgun Dibek et al., 2025).”
From From tool to scaffold: structured human–AI collaboration and its effects on academic writing and digital critical thinking among Saudi EFL learners (2026) · cites this paper as Ilgun Dibek et al., 2025
Systematic reviews of AI in education describe accelerating use of AI tools for adaptive learning, intelligent tutoring, automated assessment feedback, and writing support, with reported associations to enhanced learner engagement, higher feedback quality, and a broad range of cognitive outcomes.
“Systematic reviews of AI in education describe accelerating use of AI tools for adaptive learning, intelligent tutoring, automated assessment feedback, and writing support, with reported associations to enhanced learner engagement, higher feedback quality, and a broad range of cognitive outcomes (Garzón et al., 2025; Ilgun Dibek et al., 2025).”
From From tool to scaffold: structured human–AI collaboration and its effects on academic writing and digital critical thinking among Saudi EFL learners (2026) · cites this paper as Ilgun Dibek et al., 2025
These outcomes reflect AI's potential to foster higher-order thinking through mechanisms such as real-time feedback, interactive simulations, and scaffolded learning experiences.
“These outcomes reflect AI's potential to foster higher-order thinking through mechanisms such as real-time feedback, interactive simulations, and scaffolded learning experiences [58].”
From Systematic review of artificial intelligence in education: trends, benefits, and challenges (2025) · cites this paper as [58]
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Artificial Intelligence in Higher Education: New Wine in Old Wineskins?
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Domain-specific knowledge representation and inference engine for an intelligent tutoring system
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Online Collaborative Case Study Learning
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A holistic self-regulated learning model: A proposal and application in ubiquitous-learning
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Development of STEM-Based AI Education Program for Sustainable Improvement of Elementary Learners
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Designing a New Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Experts in Assessment.
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Emulating Human Supervision in an Intelligent Tutoring System for Arithmetical Problem Solving
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An Experimental Evaluation of Logiocando, an Intelligent Tutoring Hypermedia System
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Utilizing Learning Analytics to Support Students' Academic Self-efficacy and Problem-Solving Skills
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The Educational Perception on Artificial Intelligence by Elementary School Teachers
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Acting as ethical and responsible digital citizens: The teacher’s key role
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Analyzing Explanations for Seemingly Irrational Choices
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Supporting Mechanical Reasoning with a Representationally‐Rich Learning Environment
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The Effect of Teaching “Learning Strategies” on Academic Achievement: A Meta-Analysis Study
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An Artificial Intelligence-Based Distance Education System: Artimat
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Can innovative learning affect student HOTS achievements?: A meta-analysis study
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Robot lecture for enhancing presentation in lecture
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Enhancing a student productivity model for adaptive problem-solving assistance
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Predicting Mental Health Status in the Context of Web Browsing
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Twenty-First Century Competencies in the Chinese Science Curriculum
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Rule-based Cognitive Modeling and Model Tracing in a Math Story Problem Tutor
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Understanding and Suggestions on Field Practice Teaching of Geology Specialty
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Systematic review of artificial intelligence in education: trends, benefits, and challenges
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“These outcomes reflect AI’s potential to foster higher-order thinking through mechanisms such as real-time feedback, interactive simulations, and scaffolded learning experiences [58].”
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Emotional Artificial Intelligence in Education: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
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Adult learners’ perspectives of AI applications in supporting andragogy
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Enhancing HOTS through role-playing GenAI: a case study in classical literature education
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Education at a crossroads: will AI fix learning or break it?
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Philosophical Approach to Understanding Artificial Intelligence in Pedagogical Practice
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Students’ problem-solving skills in HOTS geometry tasks: A case study of spatial ability
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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE OF HIGHER ORDER THINKING IN SCIENCES EDUCATION: A BIBLIOMETRIC ANALYSIS
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Toward Human-Centered AI in Economics Education
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- Authors
- Ilgun Dibek, M., Sahin Kursad, M., & Erdogan, T.
- Affiliations
- TED University
- Venue
- Interactive Learning Environments
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2024-09-16
- Volume
- 33
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 2216-2238
- ISSN
- 1049-4820 (ISSN-L)
- 1744-5191
- OpenAlex
- W4402819405
- Cited by
- 45
- References
- 147
- Citations by year
- 2026: 24 · 2025: 20 · 2024: 1
- FWCI
- 2.61
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Interactive Learning Environments (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Information Systems › Artificial Intelligence in Education
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Health Informatics › Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare and Education
- Keywords
- artificial intelligence in education, higher-order thinking skills, AI tools, AI agents, cognitive skills, moderators, effect size, educational technology
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