Bot-based collective blocklists in Twitter: the counterpublic moderation of harassment in a networked public space
Open accessAbstract
This article introduces and discusses bot-based collective blocklists (or blockbots) in Twitter, which have been developed by volunteers to combat harassment in the social networking site. Blockbots support the curation of a shared blocklist of accounts, where subscribers to a blockbot will not receive any notifications or messages from accounts on the blocklist. Blockbots support counterpublic communities, helping people moderate their own experiences of a site. This article provides an introduction and overview of blockbots and the issues that they raise about networked publics and platform governance, extending an intersecting literature on online harassment, platform governance, and the politics of algorithms. Such projects involve a more reflective, intentional, transparent, collaborative, and decentralized way of using algorithmic systems to respond to issues of platform governance like harassment. I argue that blockbots are not just technical solutions but social ones as well, a notable exception to common technologically determinist solutions that often push responsibility for issues like harassment to the individual user. Beyond the case of Twitter, blockbots call our attention to collective, bottom-up modes of computationally assisted moderation that can be deployed by counterpublic groups who want to participate in networked publics where hegemonic and exclusionary practices are increasingly prevalent.
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Claims the paper makes
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- Findingnone given
Blockbots are developed and used by independent volunteer Twitter users to help individually and collectively moderate their own experiences.
“Blockbots are developed and used by independent, volunteer users of Twitter, who have developed their own computational tools to help individually and collectively moderate their own experiences on Twitter.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingnone given
Blockbots emerged in the context of a perceived governance gap, when anti-harassment activists argued Twitter was not doing enough to prevent harassment.
“Blockbots emerged in the context of a perceived governance gap, when anti-harassment activists and advocates were arguing that Twitter, Inc. was not doing enough to prevent harassment.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingnone given
Bot-based collective blocklists on Twitter were created by volunteers to fight harassment on the platform.
“This article introduces and discusses bot-based collective blocklists (or blockbots) in Twitter, which have been developed by volunteers to combat harassment in the social networking site.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Cases of redesign and reconfiguration show blockbot functionality changed based on new ideas about what harassment is, how to identify it, and what experiences a community wanted in a privately owned public space.
“I discuss cases of redesign and reconfiguration: moments when the functionality of blockbots was changed based on new ideas about what harassment is, how it ought to be identified, and what kinds of experiences a community wanted to have in a privately owned and operated public space.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
In addition to petitioning Twitter, a small group of advocates and activists turned to software-based approaches to help community members moderate their own experiences.
“In addition to this work petitioning Twitter, Inc., a small group of advocates and activists turned to software-based approaches to help their fellow community members moderate their own experiences on Twitter.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Findingnone given
In 2012, people facing coordinated harassment for feminist stances called for changes to Twitter's policies, enforcement, and interface to minimize harassment and act against harassers.
“In 2012, some people who were facing coordinated harassment campaigns for their feminist political stances called for changes to Twitter's policies, enforcement mechanisms, and user interface features, in order to minimize the impact of harassment and take action against identified harassers.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Specific reconfigurations observed include providing support for blockers to document why they added an account to a blocklist.
“providing support for blockers to document why they added an account to a blocklist;”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Some blockbot subscribers reported that blockbots made Twitter more livable or usable for them during coordinated harassment campaigns.
“Other blockbot subscribers have wrote about how blockbots helped keep Twitter 'more livable' or more 'usable' for them when they faced coordinated harassment campaigns.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
Tweets from blocked accounts are filtered only from the timeline, the default view based on accounts a user follows.
“Tweets from blocked accounts are only filtered from the 'timeline,' the default view of Twitter based on tweets from accounts a user is following.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The author found that blockbot developers and authorized curators regularly revise the code and procedures for curating a bot-supported shared blocklist.
“I have continually found that blockbot developers and authorized curators (sometimes called 'blockers') regularly revise the code and procedures for curating a bot-supported shared blocklist.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Those blockbots were developed out of or into broader projects seeking to formulate responses to online and/or gender-based harassment.
“They were instead developed out of or into broader projects seeking to formulate responses to online and/or gender-based harassment.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Some blockbot subscribers said that without the blockbot they would likely have had no alternative but to leave the site or set their account to private.
“They stated that without the blockbot, they would likely have had no alternative than leaving the site or setting their account to private.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
A major caveat to blockbots' role in affective tuning is that they do not currently function in hashtag streams.
“There is one major caveat about the role of blockbots in affective tuning, which can be seen in hashtag streams, where blockbots do not currently function.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In the author's study of several blockbots over time, such systems are continually developed and redeveloped as people come to better understand what it means to ask and answer questions about who is a harasser and what should be done about harassment.
“In studying the historical development of several different blockbots over time, I have seen how such systems are continually developed and redeveloped as people come to better understand what it even means to ask and answer questions like 'Who is and is not a harasser?' and 'What ought to be done about harassment?'”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingnone given
Blockbot developers and curators frequently seek better social and technical ways of curating blocklists, identifying harassers, and appealing blocks.
“They are also frequently seeking better social and technical ways of curating blocklists, identifying harassers, and appealing blocks.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Specific reconfigurations observed include requiring a second authorized blocker to review and approve a new addition to a blocklist, whereas previously any authorized blocker could independently add an account.
“requiring that a second authorized blocker review and approve a new addition to a blocklist, when previously, any authorized blocker could independently add an account to the blocklist;”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The overwhelming majority of anti-harassment blockbots the author encountered were not one-off software development products.
“The overwhelming majority of anti-harassment blockbots I encountered were not one-off software development products.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
Twitter, Inc.'s clients, including TweetDeck, do not filter blocked accounts from search results, including hashtag streams.
“Twitter, Inc.'s clients (including TweetDeck) do not filter blocked accounts from search results, including hashtag streams.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Specific reconfigurations observed include creating an appeals board with a formalized process to review accounts allegedly wrongly added to a blocklist.
“Specific reconfigurations I have observed include: creating an appeals board with a formalized process to review accounts that were allegedly wrongly added to a blocklist;”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The author found that concerns about someone being placed on a blocklist by accident or for inappropriate reasons were shared by blockbot developers and curators themselves.
“While there are concerns about someone being placed on a blocklist by accident or for inappropriate reasons, this is a concern that I found was shared by blockbot developers and curators themselves.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Specific reconfigurations observed include splitting a single blocklist into multiple lists based on different understandings of what constituted blockworthyness.
“and splitting a single blocklist into a set of multiple lists, based on different understandings of what constituted blockworthyness.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Blockbots are projects in which counterpublic groups exercise agency over their own experiences on Twitter.
“I show how they are projects in which counterpublic groups exercise agency over their own experiences on Twitter.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
Blockbots facilitate disciplines of listening, giving subscribers more agency in selectively tuning in to affective publics on Twitter.
“I discuss how blockbots facilitate disciplines of listening (Crawford,2009), which give subscribers more agency in selectively 'tuning in' to affective publics on Twitter (Papacharissi, 2014).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Crawford, 2009
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- cites Papacharissi, 2014
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- Interpretationreasoning
Blockbots serve as sites for collective counterpublic sensemaking about harassment.
“Finally, in the fourth section, I focus on how blockbots serve as sites for collective counterpublic sensemaking about harassment.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Blockbots help counterpublic communities moderate their own experiences of a site.
“Blockbots support counterpublic communities, helping people moderate their own experiences of a site.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Blockbots involve a different mode of counterpublic agency: an intentional refusal to listen to those identified as harassers, supported by community-built infrastructure.
“Yet blockbots involve a different mode of counterpublic agency, as they are an intentional refusal to listen to those who have been identified as harassers, which is supported through this community-built infrastructure.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Coordinated harassment campaigns are increasingly organized by groups that synchronously flood a target's social media feeds.
“Coordinated harassment campaigns are increasingly organized by more-and-less organized groups, who synchronously flood a target's social media feeds (Heron, Belford, & Goker, 2014;Phillips, 2015).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Heron, Belford, & Goker, 2014
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- cites Phillips, 2015 source
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- Interpretationcitation
Blockbots are closer to recursive publics, where a community's infrastructure development is entwined with its values and ideals.
“Rather, they are closer to the 'recursive publics' that Kelty (2008) describes with open source software projects, where a community's development of infrastructure is deeply entwined with their development of values and ideals.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kelty (2008)
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- Interpretationreasoning
Blockbots support a novel form of user-generated, bottom-up, computationally supported moderation.
“Instead, I expand the literature on online harassment and platform governance by examining bot-based collective blocklists (or 'blockbots'), which support a novel form of user-generated, bottom-up, computationally supported moderation work.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
The current state of online harassment is partly a product of a technologically determinist, libertarian mindset prominent in Silicon Valley, identified as the Californian Ideology.
“Online harassment has many causes, but the current state of harassment online is in part a product of a particular technologically determinist, libertarian mindset that is prominent in Silicon Valley, which Barbrook and Cameron identified as 'the Californian Ideology' (1996).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Barbrook and Cameron, 1996
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- Interpretationreasoning
Blockbots point to collective, bottom-up, computationally assisted moderation that counterpublic groups can use in networked publics with hegemonic and exclusionary practices.
“Beyond the case of Twitter, blockbots call our attention to collective, bottom-up modes of computationally assisted moderation that can be deployed by counterpublic groups who want to participate in networked publics where hegemonic and exclusionary practices are increasingly prevalent.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
This raises ethical concerns similar to those raised about crowdworkers on microwork platforms.
“This raises similar ethical concerns that scholars of microwork platforms have raised about the use of crowdworkers (Irani, 2013).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Irani, 2013
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationown data
This 43% figure shows a key flaw with taking an individualist approach to harassment.
“Only 43% of reports came directly from those targeted by harassment, with the majority coming from a target's authorized delegate or a bystander who observed the harassmentshowing a key flaw with taking an individualist approach to harassment.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Blockbots function as computational entities that embody an organization collectively producing a list of accounts deemed blockworthy.
“Blockbots as a computational entity encapsulate an organization that collectively articulates a list of blockworthy accounts.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Blockbots were developed to help counterpublic groups participate in a hegemonic networked public on their own terms.
“In this section, I discuss the history of blockbots, showing how they were developed to help counterpublic groups participate in a hegemonic networked public on their own terms.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Targets of coordinated and less coordinated harassment campaigns are at a distinct disadvantage even when using Twitter's built-in blocking feature.
“Targets of more-and-less coordinated harassment campaigns are at a distinct disadvantage even with Twitter's built-in blocking feature.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Different bot-assisted projects built around curating a collective blocklist operate as counterpublic modes of filtering and gatekeeping.
“This context is important in understanding how different bot-assisted projects built around curating a collective blocklist operate as counterpublic modes of filtering and gatekeeping.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
Such changes should be seen as sociotechnical reconfiguration, not purely technical solutions.
“Such changes should not be seen as purely technical solutions, but are instead sociotechnical reconfiguration (Suchman, 2007).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Suchman, 2007
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- Interpretationown data
These modifications illustrate how blockbot operators actively and continually reflect on how to best design a social-computational system for moderating their own experiences of Twitter.
“These modifications and extensions illustrate how the people who operate such blockbots are actively and continually reflecting on how to best design a social-computational system for moderating their own experiences of Twitter.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Blockbots are a different kind of computationally supported mode of platform governance, seen in the formation of broader anti-harassment communities around them and reconfigurations in blockbot infrastructure.
“Blockbots are a different kind of computationally supported mode of platform governance, which can be seen in the formation of broader anti-harassment communities around blockbots and the thoughtful reconfigurations in blockbot infrastructure.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
These cases show that the ostensibly technical work of software development can be a way in which counterpublic groups work out ideas about what harassment is and what should be done about it, rather than representing a solutionist mindset.
“Far from representing a 'solutionist' mindset that harassment is simply a technical problem to be solved with the right assemblage of algorithms, these cases show how the ostensibly technical work of software development can be a way in which counterpublic groups work out various ideas about what harassment is and what ought to be done about it.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Blockbots support a form of collective action through which people regain some control over their own experiences on Twitter.
“Blockbots support a mode of collective action in which people are able to regain some agency over their own experiences on Twitter.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
Blockbots help form a 'recursive public' in which the ideals of the group are intentionally embedded in the design of the software supporting their activities.
“Like Kelty's discussion of open source software infrastructure (Kelty, 2008), blockbots help form a 'recursive public' in which the ideals of the group are intentionally embedded in the design of the software that supports their activities.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kelty, 2008
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- Interpretationreasoning
The history of blockbots includes the formation of counter-harassment communities, not merely software release cycles.
“The history of blockbots cannot just be told in terms of software development release cycles, as they are also about the formation of counter-harassment communities.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Compared to individual mechanisms, blockbots have emerged as more communal, counterpublic responses to harassment.
“Compared to individual mechanisms, blockbots have emerged as more communal, counterpublic responses to harassment.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given
Blockbots are ongoing accomplishments of collective sensemaking in which counterpublic groups enact ideas about what harassment is and how it should be handled.
“I argue that as computational infrastructure for supporting the classification of harassment, blockbots are ongoing accomplishments of collective sensemaking, in which counterpublic groups work to enact ideas about what harassment is and how it ought to be dealt with.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Blockbots are a novel way for counterpublic groups to refine what Crawford calls 'disciplines of listening.'
“Through this capability of selective filtering, blockbots are a novel way in which counterpublic groups are seeking to refine what Crawford calls 'disciplines of listening.'”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Crawford, 2009
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- Interpretationcitation
A blockbot's software code enacts a particular understanding of what harassment is and how it should be identified.
“As a computational system for classifying harassment, a blockbot's software code enacts a particular understanding of what harassment is and how it ought to be identified.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
These revisions are socio-technical reconfigurations that simultaneously involve changes in normative understandings about harassment and concrete alterations to a blockbot's source code.
“These revisions are compelling cases of socio-technical reconfigurations (Suchman, 2007), as they simultaneously involve changes in more abstract, normative understandings about harassment as well as concrete alterations to a blockbot's source code.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Suchman, 2007
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- Interpretationreasoning
Responding to harassment scales much less easily than sending harassing messages, because each message must be handled by the recipient.
“In contrast, the work of responding to harassment is much more difficult to scale, as each of those messages must be dealt with by the recipient.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Even when Twitter's clients do not filter blocked accounts from search results, they still help people moderate their experiences by filtering out unsolicited notifications.
“Yet even when Twitter's clients are not programed to filter out blocked accounts when viewing search results, they do still help people moderate their own experiences on Twitter by filtering out unsolicited notifications.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
The ggautoblocker bot had more than 3000 subscribers as of mid-2015.
“The ggautoblocker bot, which uses a social network graph approach to generate a blocklist of individuals in and around the GamerGate movement, has over 3000 subscribers as of mid-2015 (Schwartz et al., 2015).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Schwartz et al., 2015
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationreasoning
People who use blockbots do not have to affectively attune with all the harassers who flood their notifications with offensive tweets.
“In this way, those who use blockbots do not have to affectively attune with all the harassers who flood their notifications with offensive tweets.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Blockbots help counterpublic groups participate in Twitter more on their own terms.
“In this view, 'lurking' is as much a complex and multi-faceted mode of participation as submitting content, and blockbots help counterpublic groups participate in Twitter more on their own terms.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
An algorithmic system is made up not only of software code but also of the shared discourses, practices, internal conflicts, standards, and political and ideological commitments of the people who participated in its design, development, and deployment.
“This shows how an algorithmic system is not only made up software code, but also the shared discourses, practices, internal conflicts, standards, and political and ideological commitments of the people who participated in its design, development, and deployment.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Blockbots often involve an approach quite different from the technologically determinist 'solutionist' mindset prevalent in Silicon Valley.
“I discuss moments of reflection and reconfiguration about blockbots, which show how blockbots often involve a quite different approach than the technologically determinist 'solutionist' mindset prevalent in Silicon Valley.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 90
- May combine two claims. 44
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
FindingreasoningBlocking has long been integrated into Twitter's user interfaces because by default any user can send tweets and notifications to any other user.
“Blocking has long been directly integrated into Twitter's user interfaces, which is necessary because by default, any user on Twitter can send tweets and notifications to any other user.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Findingnone givenBlockbots first appeared on Twitter in 2012, and their infrastructure was standardized with BlockTogether.org, which connects curators and subscribers.
“Blockbots first emerged in Twitter in 2012, and since then, the computational infrastructure has been standardized with the development of the BlockTogether.orgservice, which makes it easy and efficient for blocklist curators and subscribers to connect.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Findingnone givenBlockbots extend individual blocking, which hides specific accounts from a user's experience.
“Blockbots extend the basic functionality of individual blocking, in which users can hide specific accounts from their experience of the site.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Findingnone givenSome blockbot projects are private, while others are open source and highly public, with developers publicizing their blocklists, bot code, and blocking procedures.
“While some blockbot projects are more private, others are open source and highly public, with their developers and maintainers widely publicizing their blocklists, bot code, and blocking procedures.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Findingnone givenBlockbots were initially developed to combat harassment but can be and are used to filter accounts for other reasons such as incivility, hate speech, and trolling.
“While blockbots were initially developed to combat harassment in Twitter, they can be (and are) used to filter accounts for a variety of reasons beyond harassment, including incivility, hate speech, trolling, and other related phenomena.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Findingnone givenSubscribers to a blockbot do not receive notifications or messages from accounts on the shared blocklist.
“Blockbots support the curation of a shared blocklist of accounts, where subscribers to a blockbot will not receive any notifications or messages from those on the blocklist.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Findingnone givenRandi Harper's ggautoblocker had over 3000 subscribers as of mid-2015 and received significant media coverage.
“These include Randi Harper's ggautoblocker (http://twitter.com/ggautoblocker),which has over 3000 subscribers as of mid-2015 and has received significant coverage in social and mainstream media.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingnone givenBlockbots function similarly to ad blockers: people curate lists of accounts they do not wish to encounter, and others can subscribe with a few clicks.
“Functionally, blockbots work similarly to ad blockers: people can curate lists of accounts they do not wish to encounter (individually, in groups, or using algorithmic procedures), and others can subscribe to these blocklists with just a few clicks.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Findingnone givenSome blockbots use lists curated by a single person, others use community-curated lists, and some use algorithmically generated lists.
“Some blockbots use lists of harassers curated by a single person, others use community-curated blocklists, and a final set use algorithmically generated blocklists.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
FindingreasoningThis aspect of blockbots has led to controversies about what it means to put an account on a blocklist.
“This aspect of blockbots has led to controversies about what it means to put an account on a blocklist.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
FindingreasoningCurators share blocklists with BlockTogether.org, and the site's bots update subscribers' blocklists on their behalf.
“Curators share their blocklists with BlockTogether.org, and the site's bots update subscribers blocklists on their behalf.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
FindingreasoningA blocklist can be curated on an open wiki, through a vote-based process, by a single person using Twitter's blocking interface, or by an automated agent running predictive models.
“A blocklist can be curated on an open wiki in which anyone can edit or comment, a vote-based process restricted to a tight-knit group, a 'team of one' using Twitter's default blocking interface, an automated agent running predictive models, and so on.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Findingnone givenThe first blockbot made creative use of features developed for third-party clients, likely an unintended consequence of APIs.
“The first blockbot made creative use of features developed largely to support third-party clients (like smartphone applications)likely an unintended consequence of these Application Programming Interfaces (APIs).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
FindingcitationBlockbots were initially created around online harassment on Twitter in 2012, and the issue gained more attention in 2014 and 2015 due to harassment campaigns including GamerGate.
“Blockbots were initially created around the broader issue of online harassment in Twitter in 2012, although this issue has received substantially more attention in 2014 and 2015 due to a number of more-and-less organized harassment campaigns that unfolded on Twitterincluding those aligned with the GamerGate movement (which has opposed feminist video game critics) and multiple shorter cases in wh”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Chess & Shaw, 2015
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- cites Heron et al., 2014
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- cites Matias et al., 2015
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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
FindingreasoningBlocklists can be curated by single individuals, like-minded groups, or algorithmically generated based on data collection and analysis.
“Some of these blocklists are curated by single individuals, others by like-minded groups, and a final set are algorithmically generated based on various methods of data collection and analysis.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingnone givenBlockTogether.org, launched in August 2014, serves as a centralized clearinghouse for blocklist curators and subscribers.
“Today, the BlockTogether.orgsite (which was launched in August 2014), serves as a centralized clearinghouse for blocklist curators and subscribers.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
FindingreasoningUsing a bot, a blocklist can be automatically synchronized to subscribers using the same computational infrastructure.
“Then, using a bot, the blocklist can be automatically synchronized to subscribers using the same computational infrastructure.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Findingnone givenWith a few clicks, a Twitter user could subscribe to a blocklist and automatically stop seeing tweets or notifications from anyone on that list.
“With a few clicks, a Twitter user could subscribe to a blocklist and automatically no longer see any tweets or notifications from anyone added to that list.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
FindingreasoningThese blockbots allowed people to collectively curate blocklists of identified harassers and synchronize them with subscribers.
“These blockbots made it possible for people to collectively curate blocklists of those they identified as harassers, then synchronize these blocklists with subscribers.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingnone givenThe largest and most popular blockbots are run in public, with blocklists and blocking procedures visible to all, and many have developed accountability and appeals procedures.
“The largest and most popular blockbots are run in public, with their blocklists and blocking procedures visible to all, and many have developed accountability and appeals procedures to deal with these concerns.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThose involved with blockbots frequently note that these tools are imperfect, incomplete, and continually evolving responses to a complex situation, and cannot change all aspects of how Twitter operates.
“Those involved with blockbots frequently note that these tools are imperfect, incomplete, and continually evolving responses to a complex situation, where they do not have the ability to change all aspects of how Twitter operates.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Findingnone givenDefinitions of harassment vary significantly, and blockbots are increasingly used by counterpublic groups to filter activity better described as incivility or trolling rather than harassment.
“However, definitions of harassment vary significantly, and blockbots are increasingly used by counterpublic groups to filter activity that is better described as incivility or trolling, rather than harassment.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingnone givenMany blockbot subscribers have publicly written and tweeted that their experiences of Twitter changed dramatically after subscribing.
“There are numerous accounts by blockbot subscribers who have publicly wrote and tweeted about their use of blockbots like ggautoblocker, noting how their experiences of Twitter dramatically changed after subscribing.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingnone givenBlockbots are opt-in rather than opt-out, making them quite different from algorithmically supported filtering like the Facebook news feed.
“Blockbots are opt-in, rather than opt-out, making them quite different than the kind of algorithmically supported filtering that exists in the Facebook news feed, for example.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationCitron argues that harassment is a civil rights issue because it inhibits participation.
“Citron responds to claims about 'free speech' by arguing that harassment is a civil rights issue, given how harassment works to inhibit participation.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Citron, 2014
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Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningIndividually blocking accounts can be a Sisyphean task for targets of harassers, which led to a subscription model.
“However, individually blocking accounts can be a Sisyphean task for those targeted by harassers, which is why a subscription model has emerged.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationBlockbots are part of a growing genre of bespoke code that runs alongside platforms rather than being integrated into server-side code.
“They are part of a growing genre of bespoke code (Geiger, 2014), which runs alongside existing platforms, rather than being directly integrated into server-side code.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Geiger, 2014
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationThe same 2014 Pew survey found that 40% of adult American internet users had personally been harassed.
“A 2014 Pew survey of Americans found that 73% of adult American internet users had witnessed harassment online, and 40% had personally been harassed.(Duggan, 2014).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Duggan, 2014
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningBlockbots extend site affordances to make responding to harassment more efficient and communal.
“Blockbots extend the affordances of the site to make the work of responding to harassment more efficient and more communal.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationreasoningBeing added to a blocklist does not necessarily mean an account has engaged in harassment, even under a legal definition.
“It is important to note that just because an account is added to a blocklist does not mean the account has engaged in harassment according to a legal definition of the term (or even at all).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationHarassment is a civil rights issue about the capacity to participate in public spaces because of its chilling effects.
“Given the chilling effects that harassment has, it is a compelling civil rights issue about the capacity for people to participate in public spaces (Citron, 2014).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Citron, 2014
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PremisecitationCitron reviews cases and studies showing harassment silences targets into withdrawing from public spaces, and this is frequently the goal of harassers.
“Citron reviews many cases and studies about how harassment works to silence targets into withdrawing from public spacesin fact, this is frequently the goal of harassers.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Citron, 2014
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Study design and conductreasoningThe study anonymized blockbot cases as much as possible due to the sensitive topic, except for individuals who publicize their projects and gave permission.
“I have also worked to anonymize the cases of blockbots as much as possible due to the sensitive nature of this topic, except for those individuals who widely publicize their own projects and gave me explicit permission to discuss their bots in my publications.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThese moments are socio-technical reconfigurations showing blockbots should not be seen as technological solutionist projects that shift responsibility from platform owners to isolated individuals.
“These moments are socio-technical reconfigurations (Suchman, 2007), which show how blockbots should not be seen as 'technological solutionist' (Morozov, 2013) projects that shift the burden of responsibility for dealing with harassment from platform owner/operators to isolated individuals.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Suchman, 2007
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- cites Morozov, 2013
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InterpretationreasoningBlockbots are social solutions, not merely technical ones, and are an exception to technologically determinist solutions that push responsibility for harassment onto individual users.
“I argue that blockbots are not just technical solutions but social ones as well, a notable exception to common technologically determinist solutions that often push responsibility for issues like harassment to the individual user.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
InterpretationreasoningHarassment is especially prevalent on Twitter compared to many competing platforms.
“Harassment is also especially prevalent on the popular social networking and microblogging site Twitter compared to many competing platforms.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Twitter, Inc. has generally taken a more hands-off approach to moderation than other social networking sites.
- Rests on an assumption: Twitter's design affords unsolicited interactions in ways that other platforms do not.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationCitron argues that we must prioritize people's ability to express themselves in public without fear or coercion, regardless of the source.
“While traditional free speech frameworks seek to minimize restrictions on speech by an established authority, Citron argues that we must also prioritize people's ability to freely express themselves in public without fear or coercion, regardless of the source.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Citron, 2014
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PremisecitationFraser discusses how chilling effects played out in early modern European coffeehouses and forums in her critique of Habermas.
“Nancy Fraser extensively discusses how chilling effects played out in the coffeehouses and other forums of early modern Europe in her critiques of Habermas's influential account of the public sphere (Fraser, 1990).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Fraser, 1990
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PremisecitationA 2014 Pew survey found that 73% of adult American internet users had witnessed harassment online.
“A 2014 Pew survey of Americans found that 73% of adult American internet users had witnessed harassment online, and 40% had personally been harassed.(Duggan, 2014).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Duggan, 2014
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Interpretationnone givenBlockbot projects use algorithmic systems in a more reflective, intentional, transparent, collaborative, and decentralized way to respond to harassment.
“Such projects involve a far more reflective, intentional, transparent, collaborative, and decentralized way of using algorithmic systems to respond to issues like harassment.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationHarassment has long been an issue online, especially gender-based harassment, and is prevalent across many online sites and platforms.
“Harassment has long been an issue in online spaces, particularly gender-based harassment (Dibbell, 1993;Herring, 1999), which is prevalent across many private and public online sites and platforms (Marwick & Miller, 2014;Matias et al., 2015).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Dibbell, 1993
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- cites Herring, 1999
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- cites Marwick & Miller, 2014
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InterpretationcitationIf harassment is protected under free speech principles, this trades off with the free speech rights of those targeted.
“If harassment is considered protected under principles of free speech, this trades off with the free speech rights of those targeted.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationThe WAM pilot was a response taking a more communitarian, discursive, civic-focused approach to platform governance.
“One kind of response that takes a more communitarian, discursive, and civic-focused approach to platform governance is the recent pilot project between Twitter, Inc. and the non-profit Women, Action, and the Media (or WAM), analyzed and described by (Matias et al., 2015).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Matias et al., 2015
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PremisecitationFraser's feminist critique recasts the bourgeois public sphere as one of many public spheres, albeit one assumed to represent the whole population.
“Fraser's feminist critique recasts the bourgeois public sphere as but one of many public spheresalbeit one that was exclusively assumed to represent the population as a whole.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Fraser, 1990
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PremisecitationFraser critiques the idea of a universal public sphere as a neutral space where all entrants are equal, something frequently claimed but rarely found.
“Fraser critiques the idea of a universal public sphere as a neutral space where all who enter are ostensibly equalsomething that is frequently claimed, but rarely found in practice.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Fraser, 1990
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PremisecitationThe study found that many targets of harassment needed different kinds of support in making sense of harassment, especially because harassers use sophisticated techniques to overwhelm targets and mask identity.
“They argued that it was important to build a more communal way of responding to harassment, finding that many targets of harassment needed different kinds of support in making sense of harassment, particularly given how harassers can use sophisticated techniques to overwhelm their targets and mask their own identity.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Matias et al., 2015
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PremisecitationEven when marginalized individuals were not officially restricted, the fiction of a neutral equal space made subtler exclusion less visible.
“Yet even when marginalized individuals were not officially restricted from participating in these spaces, the fiction that the space was a neutral one and that all participants were equal often served to make subtler forms of exclusion less visible: 'such bracketing usually works to the advantage of dominant groups in society … the result is the development of powerful informal pressures that marg”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Fraser, 1990
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PremisecitationAdam argues for feminist ethics of collectivity and care focusing on structural inequalities of marginalized groups.
“In contrast, Adam argues for feminist ethics of collectivity and care that focus on the structural inequalities of marginalized groups.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Adam, 2000
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PremisecitationFraser notes that these public spaces were highly exclusionary, particularly for women, people of color, and working classes.
“Fraser notes that these were highly exclusionary spaces, particularly for women, persons of color, and members of the working classes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Fraser, 1990
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PremisecitationFraser contrasts counterpublics in early modern Europe that existed alongside spaces reserved for wealthy white men.
“She contrasts the 'counterpublics' in early modern Europe that existed alongside the spaces typically reserved for wealthy white men.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Fraser, 1990
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PremisecitationSeparate online spaces can be disrupted, derailed, and delegitimized by dominant and hegemonic forces, as in early modern counterpublics.
“However, as Fernback and Papacharissi note, there are many ways in which such separate online spaces can become disrupted, derailed, and delegitimized by more dominant and hegemonic forces, just as in the counterpublics of early modern Europe.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Fernback and Papacharissi
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Interpretationnone givenWAM's partnership touches on how non-dominant groups assemble in response to hegemonic venues where they are often excluded from participating on their own terms.
“WAM's partnership with Twitter touches on an issue about how non-dominant groups assemble in response to hegemonic venues, where they are often excluded from participating on their own terms.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationHabermas's account of the bourgeois public sphere celebrated coffeehouses, newspapers, and forums where members of the public could rationally debate issues and build consensus.
“Habermas's influential account of the bourgeois public sphere celebrated the coffeehouses, newspapers, and other forums where 'members of the public' could rationally debate socio-political issues and build consensus.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Habermas, 1989
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InterpretationreasoningBlockbots create multiple versions of the same centrally hosted social networking site, making them a different version of Fraser's parallel discursive arenas.
“As blockbots effectively create multiple versions of the same centrally hosted social networking site, they are a different version of Fraser's 'parallel discursive arenas' than the separate digitally mediated environments that are to run alongside more dominant and hegemonic spaces.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
PremisecitationCounterpublics lack a hegemonic claim to represent the entire population, so members must use alternative tactics to make concerns visible while maintaining a safe space.
“As counterpublics are characterized by their lack of a hegemonic claim to represent or speak to the entire population, members must employ alternative tactics to make their concerns and activities visible to 'the public,' while also maintaining a safe space to discuss and understand issues relevant to them on their own terms.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Fraser, 1990
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PremisecitationIn self-organized spaces, marginalized groups could assemble free from domination present in ostensibly neutral spaces.
“In self-organized spaces, marginalized groups could assemble free from the modes of domination that existed in ostensibly 'neutral' spaces.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Fernback, 1997
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- cites Papacharissi, 2002
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- cites Poster, 2001
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PremisecitationMorozov, Adam, and Barbrook and Cameron concur that a core problem with technological solutions is their basis in an autonomous individualist mindset.
“Morozov, Adam, and Barbrook and Cameroneach writing at different times about the same dominant mindsetconcur that one of the core problems with such technological solutions is that they are often based in an autonomous individualist mindset.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Morozov, 2013
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- cites Adam, 2005
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- cites Barbrook and Cameron, 1996
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Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
PremisecitationSubordinated groups had to enter hostile spaces to have their discourse considered part of the public, and dominant groups use practices to silence, intimidate, and chill non-dominant participation.
“Subordinated groups had to enter hostile spaces in order to have their discourse be considered part of the public, and Fraser extensively reviews the literature about how dominant groups engage in various practices to silence, intimidate, and chill participation by non-dominant groups.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Fraser, 1990
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PremisecitationMembers of counterpublic spaces could discuss issues by their own norms, reach common understandings, then engage with hegemonic media.
“Members of counterpublic spaces could potentially discuss and debate issues according to their own discursive norms, come to common understandings about issues, then engage with more hegemonic media that claims to represent 'the public.'”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Fernback, 1997
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- cites Papacharissi, 2002
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- cites Poster, 2001
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PremisecitationCrawford and Gillespie conclude that individualistic mechanisms like flags may be structurally insufficient for platforms' obligations to public discourse.
“Ultimately, they conclude that individualistic mechanisms like 'flags may be structurally insufficient to serve the platforms' obligations to public discourse, failing to contend with the deeper tensions at work' (p.15).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Crawford and Gillespie, 2014
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PremisecitationAdam argues that standard utilitarian, individualistic ethics among technologists often do not challenge the structures causing inequality.
“She argues that 'despite holding a rhetoric of equality and participation,' the standard utilitarian, individualistic, allegedly meritocratic ethics common among technologists 'often make no challenge to the structures that are causing that inequality in the first place' (Adam, 2000, p. 2).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Adam, 2000
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InterpretationreasoningA core strength of third-party bots is that the list of blocked accounts can be created and curated by any sociotechnical system.
“In fact, a core strength of using third-party bots is that the list of blocked accounts can be created and curated by any given sociotechnical system.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationThe modern Internet is a product of both countercultural and libertarian activists concerned with censorship from traditional governments and corporations.
“The modern Internet is the product of both countercultural and libertarian activists, who were concerned with censorship from traditional governments and corporations (Turner, 2006).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Turner, 2006
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InterpretationcitationTechnology is often used to shift the burden of solving problems to the individual, frequently assuming that responsibility is empowering.
“Technology is often used to shift the burden of solving these problems to the individual, frequently assuming that having such a responsibility is empowering.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe WAM model requires substantial labor from communities or non-profits, which ultimately benefits the for-profit Twitter.
“However, one issue with this model is that it requires a substantial amount of labor performed by communities or non-profit organizations, which ultimately benefits the for-profit corporation Twitter, Inc.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationOf the 161 escalated reports, Twitter took action on 55%, suspending 70 accounts, issuing 18 warnings, and deleting 1 account.
“Of those 161 reports, Twitter, Inc. took action on 55%, suspending 70 accounts, issuing 18 warnings, and deleting 1 account.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Matias et al., 2015
Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
PremisecitationCounterpublics contested exclusionary norms of the bourgeois public and elaborated alternative styles of political behavior and public speech.
“Such counterpublics 'contested the exclusionary norms of the bourgeois public, elaborating alternative styles of political behaviour and alternative norms of public speech' (p.116).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Fraser, 1990
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InterpretationreasoningThis understanding of a mediated public is based on an ideal of the isolated individual whose liberal free expression rights are supported by technology.
“Yet this understanding of a mediated public is based on an ideal of the isolated individual, whose classical liberal rights to freedom of expression are to be supported by technology.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationFraser critiques the hegemonic naming of certain venues as 'the public' while excluding venues populated by women, minorities, and working class individuals.
“Fraser critiques the hegemonic way in which certain public venues for socio-political debate and discussion came to be known as 'the public,' while other kinds of venues and activities that were populated by women, minorities, and working class individuals were excluded from this concept of the public.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Fraser, 1990
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationOnly 43% of WAM reports came directly from targets, with the majority from delegates or bystanders.
“Only 43% of reports came directly from those targeted by harassment, with the majority coming from a target's authorized delegate or a bystander who observed the harassmentshowing a key flaw with taking an individualist approach to harassment.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Matias et al., 2015
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PremisecitationAn independent academic study argued the WAM project was a success in piloting an alternative to opaque harassment processes.
“An independent academic study (Matias et al., 2015) argued that the project was a success in piloting an alternative to the often opaque processes and policies around harassment in major web platforms.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Matias et al., 2015
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PremisecitationTraditionally, counterpublics are understood as parallel discursive arenas where subordinated groups participate in their own collective sensemaking, opinion formation, and consensus building.
“Traditionally, counterpublics have been understood as 'parallel discursive arenas' (Fraser, 1990, p. 67), separate spaces where members of a subordinated group are able to participate in their own kind of collective sensemaking, opinion formation, and consensus building.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Fraser, 1990
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May combine two claims.
PremisecitationIn the three-week WAM pilot, WAM received 811 reports and escalated 161.
“In the three-week pilot period, WAM received 811 reports and decided to escalate 161 of them.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Matias et al., 2015
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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationCrawford and Gillespie advocate a more social mechanism for a more social problem, looking to Wikipedia's open backstage model.
“They advocate 'a more social mechanism for a more social problem' (p.12), looking to the open backstage model of Wikipedia, where people debate cases and policies in public.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Crawford and Gillespie, 2014
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PremisecitationFraser references late twentieth century US feminism as a vibrant counterpublic with independent publishers, bookstores, conferences, festivals, and advocacy organizations.
“Fraser references late twentieth century US feminism as an example of a vibrant counterpublic, with independent publishers, bookstores, conferences, festivals, advocacy organizations, and other spaces for face-to-face and mediated interaction that ran parallel to more dominant equivalent institutions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Fraser, 1990
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InterpretationreasoningRather than creating a separate alternative discursive space, blockbots let counterpublic groups exercise agency over their experiences within a hegemonic discursive environment.
“Rather than creating a separate, alternative discursive space, blockbots are a way in which counterpublic groups exercise agency over their own experiences within a hegemonic discursive environment.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationWith the rise of computer-mediated communication in the 1990s/2000s, many scholars discussed the potential for digital environments to be counterpublics.
“With the rise of computermediated communication in the 1990s/2000s, many scholars discussed the potential for digitally mediated environments to be counterpublics (Fernback,1997;Papacharissi, 2002;Poster, 2001).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Fernback, 1997
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- cites Papacharissi, 2002
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- cites Poster, 2001
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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationCrawford and Gillespie critique muting, blocking, flagging, and reporting features on the grounds that they shift burden to individuals.
“In the issue of harassment, this can be seen in the rise of muting, blocking, flagging, and reporting features, which Crawford and Gillespie (2014) critique on these grounds.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Crawford and Gillespie, 2014
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PremisecitationBarlow and others wrote tracts celebrating technological principles that made online interactions immune to traditional regulation.
“Activists like John Perry Barlow of the Electronic Frontier Foundation wrote tracts like 'A Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace ' (1996), celebrating the technological principles that made online interactions 'immune' to more traditional forms of regulation.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Barlow, 1996
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PremisereasoningTwitter clients are responsible for retrieving tweets from the platform's API and then filtering and displaying them to the user.
“This is because it is the responsibility of Twitter clients (the programs or web pages that are used to access the platform) to retrieve tweets from the platform's API, and then filter and display those to the user.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
PremisecitationClassification systems and technologies are not neutral; they reflect the ways their designers understand the world.
“Like all classification systems (and technologies), they are not neutral; they reflect the ways that their designers understand the world (Bowker & Star, 1999).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Bowker & Star, 1999 source
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InterpretationreasoningAnswers to questions about what behavior should be visible in public spaces emerge from the lived experiences of many different kinds of people.
“Answers to questions about what kind of behavior ought to be made visible in public spaces emerge out of the lived experiences of many different kinds of people.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationnone givenBlockbots are a technology deployed to help solve the problem of harassment on Twitter.
“Blockbots are certainly a technology that is deployed to help solve the problem of harassment on Twitter.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenBlockbots provide a concrete alternative to Twitter's default affordances, showing a different version of a public where people have more agency to selectively tune out harassment without dropping out of public participation.
“Blockbots provide a concrete alternative to the default affordances of Twitter, showing a different version of a public: one where people have more agency to selectively tune out of harassment, without dropping out of public participation altogether.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
InterpretationreasoningThis has led to controversies about what it means to put an account on a blocklist, given that accounts do not have to engage in harassment according to a legal definition to be added.
“This has led to controversies about what it means to put an account on a blocklist, given that accounts do not have to engage in harassment according to a legal definition of the term in order to be added to a blocklist.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationA particularly problematic form of online harassment is 'piling on,' in which many people each send a small number of messages and overwhelm the target.
“As many scholars note, a particularly problematic form of harassment takes the form of 'piling on,' where a large number of people each send a small number of messages, overwhelming the target (Citron, 2014;Matias et al., 2015).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Citron, 2014
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- cites Matias et al., 2015
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PremisecitationCultural curation has long been a core mechanism in which domination is reinforced, operating more subtly than formal exclusion and repression.
“Cultural curation has long been a core mechanism in which domination is reinforced (operating more subtly than more visible acts of formal exclusion and repression), and so it is understandable for blockbots to initially appear suspect by those who are deeply concerned with these issues of social justice.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Williams, 1977
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InterpretationreasoningAs online harassment is multifaceted and complex, there is unlikely to be a single solution.
“As the issue of online harassment is multifaceted and complex, there is unlikely to be a single solution.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.
PremisereasoningPart of the privilege of dominant groups is the ability to define the terms of the public by deciding what belongs and defining the current state as natural default.
“Part of the privilege of dominant groups is the ability to define the terms of the public by deciding what does and does not belong, as well as defining the current state of the world as the natural default.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningBlockbots enable targets of harassment to keep participating in networked publics while selectively tuning out content that might otherwise drive them away.
“In contrast, blockbots let targets of harassment continue to participate in networked publics, but selectively tuned out of the kind of content that would otherwise potentially drive them away from the site.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
InterpretationreasoningBlockbots commandeer that privilege to institute a different definition of the public, even if it only directly affects those who opt in.
“Blockbots commandeer that privilege to institute a different definition of the public, even if it only has direct effects for those who choose to opt in to the counterpublic group's redefinition.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationcitationThese systems are ongoing accomplishments in sensemaking, as Bowker and Star note in their studies of classification systems about race, health, and labor.
“These systems are ongoing accomplishments in sensemaking, just as Bowker and Star note in their studies of classification systems about race, health, and labor.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Bowker & Star, 1999 source
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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenThat system is the entire ecosystem of Twitter, including all people who silence others from public participation in ways not seen as abuse or harassment by Twitter, Inc. staff.
“That system is the entire ecosystem of Twitter, which includes all the people who silence others from public participation in ways that are not seen as abuse or harassment by Twitter, Inc. staff.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
InterpretationcitationConcerns about blockbots as oppressive filtering must be understood in the larger context of harassment, which works to exclude, repress, and silence public participation.
“Concerns about blockbots as a potentially oppressive mode of filtering must be understood in the larger context of harassment, which works to exclude, repress, and silence public participation, as Fraser (1990), Herring (1999), and Citron (2014) all review.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Fraser, 1990
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- cites Herring, 1999
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- cites Citron, 2014
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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
InterpretationreasoningBlockbots are compelling cases for showing how algorithmically supported classification systems are situated within particular contexts that extend beyond their source code.
“Blockbots are compelling cases for showing how algorithmically supported classification systems are situated within particular contexts, which extend far beyond their source code.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningBlockbots let non-staff developers alter the affordances of a privately owned site like Twitter, but they are constrained by the design of the systems they seek to change and by the tacit approval of Twitter, Inc. staff.
“Blockbots do let non-staff developers change the affordances of a privately owned and operated site like Twitter, but they also are constrained by the design of the systems they seek to change (and the tacit approval of Twitter, Inc. staff, which can block these bots from operating if they so choose).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationThere is strong potential for recommendation and filtering systems to influence elections, as suggested by a controversial study by Facebook staff.
“Given the way recommendation and filtering systems work, there is strong potential for such systems to even influence elections, as a controversial study by staff at Facebook, Inc. suggested (Bond et al., 2012).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Bond et al., 2012
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InterpretationreasoningBefore blockbots existed, a complex social and technical system shaped people's experiences of Twitter as a networked public space and broader understandings of what 'the public' believes.
“Before blockbots existed, there was already a complex social and technical system that shaped people's experiences of Twitter as a networked public space, which in turn shaped broader understandings of what 'the public' believes.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningBlockbots do not operate according to a top-down model of gatekeeping; they are built for particular communities to enact a different mode of gatekeeping than Twitter's default.
“Blockbots do not operate according to a top-down model of gatekeeping, as they are built for particular communities to come together and enact a different mode of gatekeeping than is the default in Twitter.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationBlockbots are a more communal and collective response to online harassment, more in line with the feminist ethics of care that Adam advocates.
“Blockbots are a more communal and collective response to the issue of online harassment, one more in line with the feminist ethics of care that Adam (2000) advocates.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Adam, 2000
Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
InterpretationreasoningDespite their utility in helping people shape their online experiences, blockbots are perhaps even more impactful in providing a catalyst for the development of anti-harassment communities.
“In fact, despite the utility that blockbots have in helping people shape their own experiences online, they are perhaps even more impactful in that they have provided a catalyst for the development of anti-harassment communities.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenBlockbots allow counter-harassment work to be distributed and decentralized more efficiently across a group that shares common understandings of harassment.
“With blockbots, counter-harassment work can be more efficiently distributed and decentralized across a group that shares common understandings about what harassment is.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationPractices of seeking and consuming content in networked publics are an embedded part of networked engagement.
“She argues that practices of seeking and consuming content in networked publics are an 'embedded part of networked engagement' (Crawford, 2009, p. 527).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Crawford, 2009
Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenIf harassers have already been blocked, they are invisible to the subscriber; if they have not been blocked, the subscriber can take specific action by adding them to the blocklist.
“If the harassers have already been blocked, they are not visible to the subscriber, and if the harassers have not been blocked, then specific action can against them by adding them to the blocklist.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
InterpretationreasoningThe bottom-up, decentralized, community-driven approach exemplified by blockbots stands in opposition to the more traditional top-down, centralized systems administration approach exemplified by Lessig's 'code is law' and much of the 'politics of algorithms' literature.
“The kind of bottom-up, decentralized, community-driven approach exemplified by blockbots stands in opposition to the more traditional top-down, centralized, systems administration approach exemplified by Lessig's 'code is law' argument and much of the 'politics of algorithms' literature.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningBlockbots can be celebrated as a way for counterpublic groups to moderate their experiences online, but they raise two common fears: fragmentation of the public sphere and algorithmic systems as discriminating gatekeepers.
“Blockbots can be celebrated as a way for counterpublic groups to moderate their experiences online, but it raises two of the more common fears expressed by those who discuss the Internet and the public sphere.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThese groups bring visibility to the issue and develop their own ideas about what kind of networked public Twitter ought to be.
“These groups bring visibility to the issue and develop their own ideas about what kind of a network public Twitter ought to be.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
Twitter, Inc. has generally taken a more hands-off approach to moderation than other social networking sites.
“Twitter, Inc. has generally taken a far more hands-off approach to moderation than other social networking sites, and the design of the platform affords unsolicited interactions in ways that others do not.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Twitter's design affords unsolicited interactions in ways that other platforms do not.
“Twitter, Inc. has generally taken a far more hands-off approach to moderation than other social networking sites, and the design of the platform affords unsolicited interactions in ways that others do not.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Harassment work can be efficiently distributed and decentralized, with anonymous imageboards serving as key sites for target selection.
“The work of harassment can be efficiently distributed and decentralized, with anonymous imageboards serving as one of many key sites for the selection of targets.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Some prominent anti-feminist individuals use Twitter to direct tens of thousands of followers to particular accounts.
“Some prominent anti-feminist individuals also use Twitter itself to direct their tens of thousands of followers to particular accounts.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Targets of harassment are typically advised to set their accounts to private, which severely limits their ability to engage in public discourse.
“Typically, targets of harassment are advised to set their accounts to private, which severely limits their ability to engage in public discourse.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Twitter clients retrieve tweets from the platform's API and then filter and display them to the user.
“This is because it is the responsibility of Twitter clients (the programs or web pages that are used to access the platform) to retrieve tweets from the platform's API, and then filter and display those to the user.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Definitions of harassment vary significantly.
“However, definitions of harassment vary significantly, and blockbots are increasingly used by counterpublic groups to filter activity that is better described as incivility or trolling, rather than harassment.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The formerly open API on Twitter supported a network of third-party blocklists designed to help users manage harassment or curate their exposure to political speech.
“The formerly open API on the platform formerly known as Twitter used to support a network of third-party blocklists designed to, for example, help users manage harassment (Geiger, 2016) or curate their exposure to political speech (Wheatley & Vatnoey, 2020).”
From Stuck in the middleware with you: the challenges of capitalizing a market-oriented approach to platform governance (2025) · cites this paper as Geiger, 2016
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Online Harassment and Content Moderation: The Case of Blocklists
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“In so doing, middleware would help users address the “per-ceived governance gap” (Geiger, 2016, p. 789) between a platform’s definition of permissible behavior and their own understanding.”
Influential
- Authors
- Geiger, R. S.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Berkeley (US)
- Corresponding author
- Geiger, R. Stuart
- ORCID
- Geiger, R. Stuart
- Venue
- Information, Communication & Society
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2016-03-21
- Volume
- 19
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 787-803
- ISSN
- 1369-118X (ISSN-L)
- 1468-4462
- OpenAlex
- W2334489881
- Semantic Scholar
- 20e5c5ba945e6d6f6f05e1ef383b6ea14a403eda
- Cited by
- 125
- References
- 10
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 19 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 16 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 5
- FWCI
- 27.33
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.escholarship.org
- Locations
- Information Communication & Society (publishedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- SSRN Electronic Journal (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Central European University
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Communication › Social Media and Politics
- Social Sciences › Safety Research › Ethics and Social Impacts of AI
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Hate Speech and Cyberbullying Detection
- Keywords
- online harassment, counterpublics, Twitter, platform governance, networked publics, algorithmic moderation, social bots
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-06.
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