Stuck in the middleware with you: the challenges of capitalizing a market-oriented approach to platform governance

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Bluesky has been described by proponents as a noteworthy and ambitious experiment in using middleware to actively incorporate the user community, increasing their agency over their social environment.

“Bluesky, in particular, has been described by proponents as a “noteworthy and ambitious experiment in using middleware to actively incorporate the user community… increasing their agency over their social environment” (Hogg et al., 2024, p. 16).”

• cites Hogg et al., 2024 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Earlier research indicated that three feed generator providers, including SkyFeed, accounted for over 95% of all feeds on Bluesky.

“earlier research indicating that three providers, including SkyFeed, accounted for over 95% of all feeds on the platform (Balduf et al., 2024).”

• cites Balduf et al., 2024 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

There is currently no viable business model for third-party service providers, although ad-revenue sharing, subscription models, and reverse metering have been proposed.

“At the practical level, there is currently no viable business model for third-party service providers, although ad-revenue sharing arrangements, subscription models, and reverse metering have been proposed (Hogg et al., 2024).”

• cites Hogg et al., 2024 sourcePartly supported

  The For-Profit Models section proposes ad-revenue sharing, subscriptions, and reverse metering for middleware providers. The Potential Business Models section says finding sustainable models is important, but it does not say that no viable business model currently exists; it also describes Block Party’s former freemium model. The claim’s categorical opening is therefore unsupported. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Content moderation challenges are compounded by opaque communication, resulting in a crisis of trust.

“These challenges are compounded by opaque communication surrounding content moderation (Cotter, 2023), resulting in a crisis of trust (Zuckerman & Rajendra-Nicolucci, 2023).”

• cites Cotter, 2023 sourceSupported
• cites Zuckerman & Rajendra-Nicolucci, 2023 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Livestreaming platforms like Twitch feature a third-party market for content moderation tools to help streamers manage chatting audiences, even as such tools risk redundancy from Twitch's in-house offerings.

“Similarly, livestreaming platforms like Twitch feature a third-party market for content moderation tools to help streamers manage their chatting audiences (Han et al., 2023), even as such tools risk redundancy from Twitch's in-house offerings (Partin, 2020).”

• cites Han et al., 2023 sourceSupported
• cites Partin, 2020 sourcePartly supported

  Part II (pp. 7–8) describes Twitch introducing its own donation-management service, Twitch Bits, and gaining an advantage over third-party donation tools. That supports the general risk posed by an in-house offering, but the paper does not establish that third-party content-moderation tools face that risk. The third-party moderation market is attributed to Han et al., not Partin. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Bluesky's experiments with governance are all about expanding individual choice, contributing to the platform's association with liberal values.

“Bluesky's experiments with governance are all about expanding individual choice, contributing to the platform's association with liberal values (Tkacz & Gehl, 2025).”

• cites Tkacz & Gehl, 2025 sourcePartly supported

  The discussion of platform polities (p. 5) describes Bluesky as aiming to embody a ‘liberal internet’ aligned with liberal values. The discussion of Bluesky’s protocol (p. 3) describes decentralisation and the possibility of users’ ‘credible exit,’ but does not say its governance experiments are all about expanding individual choice. The same platform-polities section (p. 5) cautions that choice alone cannot explain differences between platforms. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Balduf et al. concluded that 4.37% of users had employed the follow all operation on a starter pack.

“This aligns with Balduf et al. 's conclusion that “4.37% [of ] users had employed the follow all operation on a starter pack” (2025, p. 4, emphasis in original).”

• cites Balduf et al., 2025 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

A recent analysis found that 9.4% of all feeds had never curated any posts while another 21.8% seemed to be inactive.

“a recent analysis found that 9.4% of all feeds had never curated any posts while another 21.8% seemed to be inactive (Balduf et al., 2024).”

• cites Balduf et al., 2024 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

skyfeed.xyz had four feeds for managing spam in the top 100.

“The final top user is skyfeed.xyz,with four feeds for managing spam.”

May combine two claims.

Among the 100 most-liked feeds, popularity metrics plummet down the list, with only 1,200 likes at the bottom for the Japanese-language feed JP, and the list averages over 6,500 likes.

“The popularity metrics plummet as we move down the list, with only 1,200 likes at the bottom for “JP, ” a feed that aggregates Japanese language posts.The list averages over 6,500 likes.”

May combine two claims.

Identity-focused feeds were most prominent among top feeds, serving national, racial, sexual, gender, and disability affiliations; discovery was next most popular; art, relationships, NSFW, books, news, science, sports, and furries each had at least five feeds in the top 100.

“In terms of topic, identity-focused feeds were most prominent, serving different national, racial, sexual, and gender affiliations, along with the disability community.Discovery was the next most popular function and the following categories had at least five feeds within the top 100: art, relationships, NSFW, books, news, science, sports, and furries.”

May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

Two users, clarabelle.xyz and furryli.st, each had five feeds in the top 100.

“Two users, clarabelle.xyz and furryli.st, each had five feeds.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Four moderation lists mentioned using the same online tool, Blockenheimer, in their descriptions.

“Indeed, four moderation lists mentioned using the same online tool-Blockenheimer-in their descriptions.”

May combine two claims.

Top feeds heavily skew towards English content, with five Japanese, four Portuguese, and one each Indonesian, Ukrainian, and Spanish.

“Top feeds heavily skew towards English content, although there were five Japanese, four Portuguese, and a single feed each for Indonesian, Ukrainian, and Spanish.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Destiny is the subject of four starter packs.

“The subject of four starter packs, Destiny is one of the most senior livestreamers who began as a Starcraft II streamer in the days of Justin.TV and Ustream.”

May combine two claims.

Jaz, a self-described gender nomad and former Bluesky backend developer, had eight feeds in the top 100.

“The next most prominent creator was Jaz, a self-described “gender nomad” 11 with eight feeds in the top 100.”

May combine two claims.

There were notable absences in top starter packs, including a general lack of right-leaning politics or news groups, mainstream entertainment media apart from Taylor Swift fans, and other prominent social media topics like beauty, gaming, and food.

“There were some notable absences, including a general lack of right-leaning politics or news groups, mainstream entertainment media (apart from Taylor Swift fans), and other prominent social media topics like beauty, gaming, and food (Hallinan et al., 2023).”

• cites Hallinan et al., 2023 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The biggest categories of top starter packs focus on tech, news, and politics, including the DGGverse for fans of Destiny.

“The biggest categories focus on tech, news, and politics, including the DGGverse for fans of American political commentator and livestreamer Destiny”

May combine two claims.

Starter packs are difficult to locate directly within the app; they do not appear in search results and only come up if people post about one or visit a creator's profile.

“However, starter packs are difficult to locate directly within the app.They don't appear in search results and instead only come up if people post about a starter pack or if a user visits the profile of someone who has created one (see Fig. 1).”

May combine two claims.

Bluesky users have created over 14,000 moderation lists, roughly one-sixth the total number of custom feeds and one-twentieth the number of starter packs.

“Bluesky users have created over 14,000 moderation lists, roughly one-sixth of the total number of custom feeds and one-twentieth the number of starter packs on the platform.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In one hundredth place among top starter packs was the Flesh and Blood TCG Starter Pack, used only 34 times.

“In one hundredth place was the “Flesh and Blood TCG Starter Pack” for fans of the trading card game, which had been used only 34 times.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Bluesky promises and delivers a marketplace of editorial services, with hundreds of thousands of third-party options available for users to customize their social media experience.

“Bluesky promises and delivers a marketplace of editorial services, with hundreds of thousands of third-party options available for users to customize their social media experience.”

May combine two claims.

Despite Jesse Singal being the most blocked account on Bluesky (by 80,000 accounts at the time of data collection), users circulated an online petition with over 26,000 signatures calling for his ban.

“The case of Jesse Singal highlights this dispute: despite being the most blocked account on the platform (by 80,000 accounts at the time of data collection), users still circulated an online petition with over 26,000 signatures calling for his ban.”

May combine two claims.

Evidence of user demand was quite minimal, with low rates of adoption not indicative of a thriving marketplace.

“Yet evidence of user demand was quite minimal, with low rates of adoption not indicative of a thriving marketplace.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Discovery and interest-based offerings serve individual preferences above all.

“Discovery and interest-based offerings serve individual preferences above all.”

May combine two claims.

The connections to online subcultures in Bluesky middleware are abundant and include furries, fans, artists, sex workers, and political streamers, as well as substantial representation of social minorities such as LGBTQ communities, disability communities, and Blacksky.

“The connections to online subcultures are abundant and include the impressive organization of furries, fans, artists (especially of the lowbrow variety), sex workers, and political streamers (reflected in the distinctive if polarizing popularity of Destiny).There is also substantial representation of social minorities, which the examples of LGBTQ communities, disability communities, and Blacksky”

May combine two claims.

Cross-referencing large moderation lists with the most blocked accounts on Bluesky suggests a partisan orientation for blocking on the platform, with conservative accounts blocked more frequently than liberals, although more research is needed to confirm this claim.

“Cross-referencing large moderation lists with the most blocked accounts on Bluesky suggests a partisan orientation for blocking on the platform, with conservative accounts blocked more frequently than liberals, although more research is needed to confirm this claim.”

May combine two claims.

Most political block lists target the right or resist liberals that oppose U.S. President Donald Trump.

“However, most of the political block lists target the right (e.g., “Conservative-Following Blocklist (Appeals open for progressives)”) or “resist” liberals that oppose U.S. President Donald Trump (e.g., “#Resistance Dweebs”).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

For most of the popular feeds, starter packs, moderation lists, and labeler services, the connection to truth is less obvious.

“However, for most of the popular feeds, starter packs, moderation lists, and labeler services, the connection to truth is less obvious.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Badge labels are a more popular application of labeling services, perhaps because they require less effort and can be configured as a self-service model.

“Badge labels are a more popular application of the service, perhaps because they require less effort and can be configured as a self-service model.”

May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

The 50 most followed labeling services on Bluesky have an average of around 2,300 users, with the 50th-most followed account having only 173 users.

“The average number of users for the services we looked at was around 2,300 users.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Unlike custom feeds and starter packs, the offerings of labeling services are not extensive, but like them, only a very small minority of Bluesky users appear to have made use of this middleware feature.

“Unlike custom feeds and starter packs, the offerings here are not extensive, but like them, only a very small minority of Bluesky users appear to have made use of this middleware feature.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Rather than counter the power of commercial platforms through regulation, middleware seeks to empower the user through increased editorial choice.

“Rather than counter the power of commercial platforms through regulation, middleware seeks to empower the user through increased editorial choice.”

May combine two claims.

Previous research on Twitter blocklists found that some users who had been added to blocklists did not understand why they were there, were not able to change their status, and suffered reputational harms.

“previous research on Twitter blocklists found that some users who had been added to blocklists didn't understand why they were there, were not able to change their status, and suffered reputational harms (Jhaver et al., 2018;Wheatley & Vatnoey, 2020)”

• cites Jhaver et al., 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Wheatley & Vatnoey, 2020 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Middleware is a recent market-oriented proposal for platform governance that promises a way out of the impasse through third-party services for curation and content moderation.

“Middleware, a recent proposal for a market-oriented approach to platform governance, promises a way out of the impasse through third-party services for curation and content moderation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Bluesky's design and corporate ethos make it especially easy for third parties, including individuals, community groups, non-profit organizations, and aspiring businesses, to make their own editorial services and make these services available to users.

“Basically, the design and corporate ethos of Bluesky make it especially easy for third parties, including individuals, community groups, non-profit organizations, and aspiring businesses, to make their own editorial services and make these services available to users.”

May combine two claims.

Starter packs are primarily intended for external recruitment, circulating in other information environments and directing people back to Bluesky.

“As these design choices suggest, starter packs are primarily intended for external recruitment, circulating in other information environments and then directing people back to Bluesky.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

By introducing market competition at the editorial level, middleware aims to reduce the influence of large commercial platforms over public life.

“By introducing market competition at the editorial level, middleware aims to reduce the influence of large commercial platforms over public life.”

May combine two claims.

As with custom feeds, there is a great number of starter packs on offer but little evidence of use.

“As with custom feeds, here too we found a great number of starter packs on offer, but little evidence of use.”

May combine two claims.

Encouraging customized social media experiences is unlikely to address social fragmentation and ideological polarization, given that it does not change the underlying ad-driven business model.

“Furthermore, encouraging customized social media experiences is unlikely to address social fragmentation and ideological polarization (Faris & Donovan, 2021), given that it does not change the underlying ad-driven business model (Maréchal, 2021).”

• cites Faris & Donovan, 2021 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Maréchal, 2021 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Bluesky's approach to curation is based on the idea that people must have control over algorithms to trust online spaces.

“Bluesky's approach to curation is based on the idea that people “must have control over our algorithms if we're going to trust in our online spaces” (The Bluesky Team, 2022).”

• cites The Bluesky Team, 2022Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The quote only partly states this claim.

Because moderation lists can be used for both public blocking and private muting, the paper cannot directly determine which lists are used the most.

“we cannot directly determine which lists are used the most.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Despite widespread support among public intellectuals and Trust & Safety professionals, real world implementation of editorial middleware remains relatively limited.

“Despite widespread support among public intellectuals and Trust & Safety professionals, real world implementation of editorial middleware remains relatively limited.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Large commercial actors like Meta and ByteDance have shown little interest in opening their platforms to competition without a regulatory stick and/or carrot.

May combine two claims.

Overall, there is a large number of feed products but a very long tail of user uptake, suggesting an imbalance between supply and demand.

“Overall, we see a large number of products, but a very long tail of user uptake, suggesting an imbalance between supply and demand.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

There is a need for regulation to provide and preserve access to the APIs of commercial platforms.

“There is also the need for regulation to provide and preserve access to the APIs of commercial platforms, especially given trends toward greater restrictions from major actors like Meta, X, and Reddit.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Middleware reflects a distinctly market- and free speech-oriented approach to platform governance that seeks minimal state intervention.

“Unsurprisingly, given its pedigree, middleware reflects a distinctly market-and free speech-oriented approach to platform governance that seeks minimal state intervention.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

At a technical level, Bluesky's design is largely a success, offering a social media experience that replicates the feel of centralized social media platforms.

“At a technical level, the design is largely a success, offering a social media experience that replicates the feel of centralized social media platforms.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Middleware as a marketplace of editorial services is not only a policy solution but also a cultural contestation over the values of platform governance.

“Middleware as a marketplace of editorial services is thus not only a policy solution, but also a cultural contestation over the values of platform governance.”

May combine two claims.

There is no hard boundary between financial and subcultural capital; users may indirectly monetize the attention they receive for creating community tools.

“Of course, there is no hard boundary between financial and subcultural capital; users may indirectly monetize the attention they receive for creating community tools.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

If middleware is supported by diverse kinds of capital, the community infrastructure needed to support these endeavors is notoriously difficult to scale.

“If it is to be supported by diverse kinds of capital, the community infrastructure needed to support these endeavors is notoriously difficult to scale.”

May combine two claims.

We already see friction between Bluesky's leadership and some of its users that suggest competing understandings of the platform, most evident in disputes over top-level content moderation.

“While cultural practices and ambiguous engagement metrics help sustain multiple and potentially competing ideas of value (Hallinan & Brubaker, 2021), we already see friction between Bluesky's leadership and some of its users that suggest competing understandings of the platform.This conflict is most evident in disputes over top-level content moderation.”

• cites Hallinan & Brubaker, 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The starter pack sample is an inexact approximation that likely underreports non-English packs because it was gathered by searching the English alphabet letter by letter and selecting the top 100 by use.

“The results are thus an inexact approximation, but still give a good sense of the attributes of popular starter packs on the platform.It likely underreports non-English packs given the sampling method.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Jesse Singal has been cataloged by GLAAD's Accountability Project for his writings on transgender issues and other matters.

“As reporting from TechCrunch notes, Singal “has been cataloged by GLAAD's Accountability Project for his writings on transgender issues and other matters””

• cites TechCrunchNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The openness and customizability of Bluesky support substantial innovation, and the rise of feed generators-as-a-service further expands participation by lowering the technical skills and resources necessary for people to create and share their own algorithms.

“At the same time, the openness and customizability of the platform support substantial innovation.The rise of feed generators-as-a-service further expands participation, lowering the technical skills and resources necessary for people to create (and share) their own algorithms.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

It is ambiguous how Bluesky defines use for starter packs.

“It is, however, ambiguous how Bluesky defines use.”