Initial examination of the bidirectional associations between sluggish cognitive tempo and internalizing symptoms in children
Open accessAbstract
Few studies have examined the longitudinal association between sluggish cognitive tempo (SCT) symptoms and internalizing symptoms, and no study has examined the potentially bidirectional associations between SCT and internalizing symptoms. The present study used a short-term longitudinal design to examine the directionality of the associations between SCT, depressive, and anxious symptoms in children. Teachers of 188 children in 1st to 6th grades (6–13 years of age; 47% boys) provided ratings of children’s SCT, anxiety, and depressive symptoms in the fall school semester (T1) and again 6 months later (T2). Children in 3rd to 6th grades (n = 133) provided ratings of anxiety and depressive symptoms at both time points. Cross-lagged panel models examining the longitudinal associations between SCT, anxiety, and depressive symptoms were conducted controlling for sex and grade, with separate models for teacher- and child-reported internalizing symptoms. SCT symptoms at Time 1 (T1) predicted increased depressive symptoms at T2, with findings consistent across teacher-rated depression and child-rated depression. Depression at T1 did not predict SCT at T2. SCT symptoms at T1 also predicted increased teacher-rated anxiety at T2 but not child-rated anxiety. Finally, child-rated anxiety at T1 predicted increased SCT at T2. Findings from this study provide the first evidence that SCT symptoms predict subsequent depressive symptoms and not the reverse. Associations between SCT and anxiety are more nuanced, with results differing based on the informant. Additional studies are needed to replicate and extend these findings across longer developmental periods with more time points and to examine mechanisms of the associations between SCT and internalizing symptoms in children.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Across informants, 32-48% of children with elevated SCT ratings also have elevated depression ratings.
“Across informants, 32–48% of children with elevated SCT ratings are also elevated on depression ratings.103”
From Report of a Work Group on Sluggish Cognitive Tempo: Key Research Directions and a Consensus Change in Terminology to Cognitive Disengagement Syndrome (2023) · cites this paper as [103]
The Discussion reports an association between SCT and depressive symptoms across teacher and child ratings, and the Results report that SCT predicted later depressive symptoms for both informants. Our copy does not report that 32–48% of children with elevated SCT ratings also had elevated depression ratings; the cited results concern symptom associations, not that proportion of children. (LLM, conf=0.81)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredEpidemiological studies find elevated SCT symptoms in 25-40% of youth with ADHD.
“Epidemiological studies demonstrate elevated SCT symptoms among 25–40% of youth with ADHD27,86,103”
From Report of a Work Group on Sluggish Cognitive Tempo: Key Research Directions and a Consensus Change in Terminology to Cognitive Disengagement Syndrome (2023) · cites this paper as [103]
The Current Study describes a school-based study of SCT and internalizing symptoms, while the Discussion says ADHD symptoms were excluded from its models. Searches for the 25–40% figure and for epidemiological estimates of elevated SCT among youth with ADHD found no passage in our copy reporting that prevalence. (LLM, conf=0.72)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Merikangas, K. R., He, J.-P., Burstein, M., Swanson, S. A., Avenevoli, S., Cui, L., Benjet, C., Georgiades, K., & Swendsen, J. (2010) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2010.05.017 · Cited by 6,278 · see citing works
Anxiety and cognitive performance: Attentional control theory
Eysenck, M. W., Derakshan, N., Santos, R., & Calvo, M. G. (2007) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/1528-3542.7.2.336 · Cited by 5,289 · see citing works
Principles and practice in reporting structural equation analyses.
McDonald, R. P., & Ho, M.-H. R. (2002) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.7.1.64 · Cited by 4,734 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Model fit was assessed with the comparative fit index (CFI) and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) given that chi-square is known to be sensitive to sample size (McDonald & Ho, 2002).”
MethodChorpita, B. F., Yim, L., Moffitt, C., Umemoto, L. A., & Francis, S. E. (2000) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7967(99)00130-8 · Cited by 1,966 · see citing works
Wang, J., & Wang, X. (2012) · Wiley series in probability and statistics · doi:10.1002/9781118356258 · Cited by 1,373 · see citing works
Ebesutani, C., Reise, S. P., Chorpita, B. F., Ale, C., Regan, J., Young, J., Higa-McMillan, C., & Weisz, J. R. (2012) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/a0027283 · Cited by 439 · see citing works
Becker, S. P., Leopold, D. R., Burns, G. L., Jarrett, M. A., Langberg, J. M., Marshall, S. A., McBurnett, K., Waschbusch, D. A., & Willcutt, E. G. (2016) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2015.12.006 · Cited by 368 · see citing works
Self-citationMultilevel Methods for Public Health Research
Subramanian, S. V., Jones, K., & Duncan, C. (2003) · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195138382.003.0004 · Cited by 336 · see citing works
The best of both worlds: Combining autoregressive and latent curve models.
Curran, P. J., & Bollen, K. A. (2001) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/10409-004 · Cited by 331 · see citing works
Penny, A. M., Waschbusch, D. A., Klein, R. M., Corkum, P., & Eskes, G. (2009) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/a0016600 · Cited by 241 · see citing works
The Internal and External Validity of Sluggish Cognitive Tempo and its Relation with DSM–IV ADHD
Willcutt, E. G., Chhabildas, N., Kinnear, M., DeFries, J. C., Olson, R. K., Leopold, D. R., Keenan, J. M., & Pennington, B. F. (2014) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10802-013-9800-6 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
Barkley, R. A. (2014) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10802-013-9824-y · Cited by 208 · see citing works
Lee, S., Burns, G. L., Snell, J., & McBurnett, K. (2014) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10802-013-9714-3 · Cited by 200 · see citing works
Wolraich, M. L., Bard, D., Neas, B. R., Doffing, M., & Beck, L. (2013) · Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics · doi:10.1097/dbp.0b013e31827d55c3 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Marshall, S. A., Evans, S. W., Eiraldi, R. B., Becker, S. P., & Power, T. J. (2014) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10802-013-9758-4 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
Self-citationStawarczyk, D., Majerus, S., der Linden, M. V., & D’Argembeau, A. (2012) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00363 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
McBurnett, K., Villodas, M., Burns, G. L., Hinshaw, S. P., Beaulieu, A., & Pfiffner, L. J. (2014) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10802-013-9801-5 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Leopold, D. R., Christopher, M. E., Burns, G. L., Becker, S. P., Olson, R. K., & Willcutt, E. G. (2016) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12505 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Self-citationBecker, S. P., Luebbe, A. M., Fite, P. J., Stoppelbein, L., & Greening, L. (2014) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10802-013-9719-y · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Self-citationFactor structure of a sluggish cognitive tempo scale in clinically-referred children
Jacobson, L. A., Murphy-Bowman, S. C., Pritchard, A. E., Tart-Zelvin, A., Zabel, T. A., & Mahone, E. M. (2012) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10802-012-9643-6 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Becker, S. P., Luebbe, A. M., & Joyce, A. M. (2015) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/pas0000083 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Self-citationSluggish cognitive tempo in adults: psychometric validation of the Adult Concentration Inventory
Becker, S. P., Burns, G. L., Garner, A. A., Jarrett, M. A., Luebbe, A. M., Epstein, J. N., & Willcutt, E. G. (2018) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/pas0000476 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Self-citationBecker, S. P., & Willcutt, E. G. (2019) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-018-1136-x · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Self-citationBecker, S. P., Burns, G. L., Leopold, D. R., Olson, R. K., & Willcutt, E. G. (2018) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12946 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Self-citationBernad, M. D. M., Servera, M., Becker, S. P., & Burns, G. L. (2015) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-015-0066-z · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Self-citationBecker, S. P., Garner, A. A., Tamm, L., Antonini, T. N., & Epstein, J. N. (2019) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2017.1286595 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Self-citationBecker, S. P., Fite, P. J., Garner, A. A., Greening, L., Stoppelbein, L., & Luebbe, A. M. (2013) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2013.07.001 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Self-citationBecker, S. P. (2014) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2014.02.007 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Self-citationBernad, M. D. M., Servera, M., Grases, G., Vázquez, S. C., & Burns, G. L. (2014) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-014-9866-9 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Fenollar-Cortés, J., Servera, M., Becker, S. P., & Burns, G. L. (2014) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054714548033 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Self-citationDumenci, L., & Windle, M. T. (1996) · Multivariate Behavioral Research · doi:10.1207/s15327906mbr3103_3 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Sáez, B., Servera, M., Burns, G. L., & Becker, S. P. (2019) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10802-018-0436-4 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Self-citationServera, M., Bernad, M. D. M., Carrillo, J. M., Collado, S., & Burns, G. L. (2016) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2015.1004680 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Depression and daydreaming: An analysis based on self‐ratings
Giambra, L. M., & Traynor, T. D. (1978) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/1097-4679(197801)34:1 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Self-generated thoughts and depression: from daydreaming to depressive symptoms
Marchetti, I., de Putte, E. V., & Koster, E. H. W. (2014) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00131 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Smith, Z. R., Eadeh, H.-M., Breaux, R. P., & Langberg, J. M. (2019) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/pas0000671 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Olatunji, B. O., & Cole, D. A. (2009) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/a0016206 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Starr, L. R., Stroud, C. B., & Li, Y. I. (2015) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2015.10.065 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Burns, G. L., Becker, S. P., Geiser, C., Leopold, D. R., & Willcutt, E. G. (2020) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2019.1567348 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Self-citationPreszler, J., Burns, G. L., Litson, K., Geiser, C., Servera, M., & Becker, S. P. (2019) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191116686178 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Self-citationNeuro-physiological correlates of sluggish cognitive tempo (SCT) symptoms in school-aged children
Yung, T. W. K., Lai, C. Y. Y., Chan, J. Y. C., Ng, S. S. M., & Chan, C. C. H. (2020) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-019-01353-1 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Is risk for mania associated with increased daydreaming as a form of mental imagery?
Meyer, T. D., Finucane, L., & Jordan, G. (2011) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2011.06.002 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Holdaway, A. S., & Becker, S. P. (2018) · School Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.1037/spq0000245 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Self-citationSluggish Cognitive Tempo and Personality: Links to BIS/BAS Sensitivity and the Five Factor Model
Becker, S. P., Schmitt, A. P., Jarrett, M. A., Luebbe, A. M., Garner, A. A., Epstein, J. N., & Burns, G. L. (2018) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2018.06.001 · Cited by 20 · cited 7× · see citing works
“Previous studies have found a prospective association between SCT and depressive symptoms (Becker et al., 2018; Bernad et al., 2014, 2016; Servera et al., 2016).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Muthén LK, & Muthén BO (1998–2018). Mplus user’s guide (Eigth ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Becker, S. P., Willcutt, E. G., Leopold, D. R., Fredrick, J. W., Smith, Z. R., Jacobson, L. A., Burns, G. L., Mayes, S. D., Waschbusch, D. A., Froehlich, T. E., et al. (2023) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2022.07.821 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Self-citationBurns, G. L., & Becker, S. P. (2021) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2019.1678165 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Self-citationSystematic Review: Assessment of Sluggish Cognitive Tempo Over the Past Decade
Becker, S. P. (2021) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2020.10.016 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Self-citationBecker, S. P., Burns, G. L., Smith, Z. R., & Langberg, J. M. (2020) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10802-019-00603-9 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Self-citationSmith, Z. R., Zald, D. H., & Lahey, B. B. (2020) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10802-020-00692-x · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Sluggish cognitive tempo: an examination of clinical correlates for adults with autism
Brewe, A. M., Simmons, G. L., Capriola-Hall, N. N., & White, S. W. (2020) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361319900422 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Fredrick, J. W., Langberg, J. M., & Becker, S. P. (2022) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-022-00923-3 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Self-citationEkinci, O., İpek Baş, S. A., Ekinci, N., Doğan, Ö. İ., Yaşöz, C., & Adak, İ. (2021) · Brazilian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1590/1516-4446-2020-0965 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Scaini, S., Medda, E., Battaglia, M., De Giuli, G., Stazi, M. A., D’Ippolito, C., & Fagnani, C. (2023) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-023-01029-0 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
- Authors
- Becker, S. P., Webb, K. L., & Dvorsky, M. R.
- Affiliations
- Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center (US)
- Division of Behavioral Medicine and Clinical Psychology, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center
- University of California, San Francisco (US)
- Corresponding author
- Becker, Stephen P.
- Venue
- Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2019-06-28
- Volume
- 50
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 258-266
- ISSN
- 1537-4416 (ISSN-L)
- 1537-4424
- PMC
- PMC6934933
- OpenAlex
- W2955949222
- Cited by
- 39
- References
- 44
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 2 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 2
- FWCI
- 2.92
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (K23MH108603)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Keywords
- sluggish cognitive tempo, internalizing problems, depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms, bidirectional relationship, children, teacher ratings, child self-report, informant differences, cross-lagged panel model
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Anxiety, Behavioral Symptoms, Child, Cognition, Depression, Female, Humans, Male, Schools
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
