An overview of the potential environmental impacts of large-scale microalgae cultivation.
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Cultivation of microalgae for applications such as fuel, food, pharmaceuticals and farming is a rapidly developing area of research and investment. Whilst microalgae promises to deliver many environmental benefits compared with existing biofuel technology, there are also issues to overcome in relation to wastewater management, emissions control, land use change and responsible development of genetically modified organisms. This review seeks to highlight both the positive and negative impacts of microalgae cultivation, focusing on impacts to the aquatic, atmospheric and terrestrial biospheres that may occur and would need to be managed should the microalgae cultivation industry continue to grow.
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Microalgae production has proven environmental benefits but also potential adverse impacts related to high water and energy demand, management of wastewater, emission control, land use, and risk of microbial contamination.
“Microalgae production has proven environmental benefits but also potential adverse impacts related to the high water and energy demand, management of wastewater, emission control, land use and risk of microbial contamination (Usher et al., 2014; Mayers et al., 2016; Béchet et al., 2017).”
From Current Status of the Algae Production Industry in Europe: An Emerging Sector of the Blue Bioeconomy (2021) · cites this paper as Usher et al., 2014
The Abstract identifies wastewater management, emissions control and land-use change as issues, while Energy and nutrient supply describes substantial water and energy demands. Viruses, pathogens and parasites discusses contamination risks. The claim overstates the benefits as “proven”: the Abstract says microalgae promises benefits, and Energy and nutrient supply reports mixed environmental comparisons. (LLM, conf=0.88)
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Khan, M. I., Shin, J. H., & Kim, J. D. (2018) · Microbial Cell Factories · doi:10.1186/s12934-018-0879-x · Cited by 2,082 · see citing works
“Some carbohydrates rich microalgae like Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and Chlorella vulgaris are considered to be potential for techno-economic analysis (TEA) of bioethanol production [41].”
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Current Status of the Algae Production Industry in Europe: An Emerging Sector of the Blue Bioeconomy
Araújo, R., Vázquez Calderón, F., Sánchez López, J., Azevedo, I. C., Bruhn, A., Fluch, S., Garcia Tasende, M., Ghaderiardakani, F., Ilmjärv, T., Laurans, M., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Marine Science · doi:10.3389/fmars.2020.626389 · Cited by 653 · see citing works
“Microalgae production has proven environmental benefits but also potential adverse impacts related to the high water and energy demand, management of wastewater, emission control, land use and risk of microbial contamination (Usher et al., 2014; Mayers et al., 2016; Béchet et al., 2017).”
BackgroundFourth generation biofuel: A review on risks and mitigation strategies.
Abdullah, B., Syed Muhammad, S. A. F., Shokravi, Z., Ismail, S., Kassim, K. A., Mahmood, A. N., & Aziz, M. M. A. (2019) · Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.rser.2019.02.018 · Cited by 531 · see citing works
Khoo, K. S., Ahmad, I., Chew, K. W., Iwamoto, K., Bhatnagar, A., & Show, P. L. (2023) · Progress in Energy and Combustion Science · doi:10.1016/j.pecs.2023.101071 · Cited by 363 · see citing works
Minimizing carbon footprint via microalgae as a biological capture
Onyeaka, H. N., Miri, T., Obileke, K. C., Hart, A., Anumudu, C. K., & Al-Sharify, Z. T. (2021) · Carbon Capture Science & Technology · doi:10.1016/j.ccst.2021.100007 · Cited by 345 · see citing works
Phycobiliprotein: Potential microalgae derived pharmaceutical and biological reagent
Manirafasha, E., Ndikubwimana, T., Zeng, X., Lu, Y., & Jing, K. (2016) · Biochemical Engineering Journal · doi:10.1016/j.bej.2016.01.025 · Cited by 321 · see citing works
Biomass-based biorefineries: An important architype towards a circular economy
Kumar, B., & Verma, P. (2020) · Fuel · doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2020.119622 · Cited by 320 · see citing works
Nie, J., Sun, Y., Zhou, Y., Kumar, M., Usman, M., Li, J., Shao, J., Wang, L., & Tsang, D. C. W. (2019) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.136080 · Cited by 303 · see citing works
Advances in CO₂ utilization technology: A patent landscape review
Norhasyima, R. S., & Mahlia, T. M. I. (2018) · Journal of CO2 Utilization · doi:10.1016/j.jcou.2018.05.022 · Cited by 288 · see citing works
Towards the implementation of sustainable biofuel production systems
Correa, D. F., Beyer, H. L., Fargione, J., Hill, J., Possingham, H. P., Thomas‐Hall, S. R., & Schenk, P. M. (2019) · Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.rser.2019.03.005 · Cited by 277 · see citing works
Chia, S. R., Chew, K. W., Show, P. L., Yap, Y. J., Ong, H. C., Ling, T. C., & Chang, J. (2018) · Biotechnology Journal · doi:10.1002/biot.201700618 · Cited by 188 · see citing works
Algae Metabolites in Cosmeceutical: An Overview of Current Applications and Challenges
Thiyagarasaiyar, K., Goh, B. H., Jeon, Y., & Yow, Y. (2020) · Marine Drugs · doi:10.3390/md18060323 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
“Studies have reported that large cultivation of microalgae capable of uptaking carbon from the atmosphere; for instance, Spirulina platensis with carbon fixation rate of 318 mg/L−1d−1 and Chlorella vulgaris with carbon fixation rate of 251 mg/L−1d−1 [22,23].”
BackgroundBiodiversity impacts of bioenergy production: Microalgae vs. first generation biofuels
Correa, D. F., Beyer, H. L., Possingham, H. P., Thomas-Hall, S. R., & Schenk, P. M. (2017) · Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.rser.2017.02.068 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
Microalgae and ammonia: A review on inter-relationship
Chai, W. S., Chew, C. H., Munawaroh, H. S. H., Ashokkumar, V., Cheng, C. K., Park, Y., & Show, P. L. (2021) · Fuel · doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2021.121303 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Biodiesel production from microalgae using lipase-based catalysts: Current challenges and prospects
Mota, G. F., de Sousa, I. G., de Oliveira, A. L. B., Cavalcante, A. L. G., Moreira, K. D. S., Cavalcante, F. T. T., Souza, J. E. D. S., Falcão, Í. R. D. A., Rocha, T. G., Valério, R. B. R., et al. (2022) · Algal Research · doi:10.1016/j.algal.2021.102616 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
Bhatt, P., Bhandari, G., Turco, R. F., Aminikhoei, Z., Bhatt, K., & Simsek, H. (2022) · Environmental Pollution · doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2022.119688 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
Yong, J. J. J. Y., Chew, K. W., Khoo, K. S., Show, P. L., & Chang, J. (2020) · Biotechnology Advances · doi:10.1016/j.biotechadv.2020.107684 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Yap, J. K., Sankaran, R., Chew, K. W., Halimatul Munawaroh, H. S., Ho, S.-H., Rajesh Banu, J., & Show, P. L. (2021) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.130886 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
RetractedHossain, N., Zaini, J., & Mahlia, T. M. I. (2019) · Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.rser.2019.109371 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
Zhang, T.-Y., Hu, H.-Y., Wu, Y.-H., Zhuang, L.-L., Xu, X.-Q., Wang, X.-X., & Dao, G.-H. (2016) · Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.rser.2016.02.008 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Su, M., Bastiaens, L., Verspreet, J., & Hayes, M. (2023) · Foods · doi:10.3390/foods12203878 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
“As a result, contamination often occurs and pure microalga culture production is costly [45].”
BackgroundThe cost benefit of algal technology for combined CO2 mitigation and nutrient abatement
Judd, S. J., Al Momani, F. A. O., Znad, H., & Al Ketife, A. M. D. (2017) · Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.rser.2016.12.068 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
“Other reviews have considered process integration [12] and net environmental impact of MCT through greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions [13, 14].”
Wastewater and waste CO2 for sustainable biofuels from microalgae
Collotta, M., Champagne, P., Mabee, W., & Tomasoni, G. (2017) · Algal Research · doi:10.1016/j.algal.2017.11.013 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Microalgal Cultivation for Value-Added Products: A Critical Enviro-Economical Assessment
Kothari, R., Pandey, A., Ahmad, S., Kumar, A., Pathak, V. V., & Tyagi, V. V. (2017) · 3 Biotech · doi:10.1007/s13205-017-0812-8 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
“Microalgal biomass is being used as thickening agents, water-binding agents and antioxidants in the cosmetic industries such as Arthrospira and Chlorella are widely used in products related to skin care (Usher et al. 2014).”
BackgroundInfluentialElemental, morphological and thermal analysis of mixed microalgae species from drain water
Hossain, N., Zaini, J., Mahlia, T. M. I., & Азад, А. К. (2018) · Renewable Energy · doi:10.1016/j.renene.2018.07.082 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Ingrisano, R., Tosato, E., Trost, P., Gurrieri, L., & Sparla, F. (2023) · Plants · doi:10.3390/plants12193410 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
“Constituting such a broad class of microorganisms (mainly grouped as a function of their size; 3–10 µ m), microalgae occupy a wide range of environments and, as primary producers, provide the base of the aquatic ecosystem trophic chain [106,107].”
BackgroundBioprinting of Regenerative Photosynthetic Living Materials
Balasubramanian, S., Yu, K., Meyer, A. S., Karana, E., & Aubin‐Tam, M. (2021) · Advanced Functional Materials · doi:10.1002/adfm.202011162 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Hossain, N., Mahlia, T. M. I., Zaini, J., & Saidur, R. (2019) · Environmental Progress & Sustainable Energy · doi:10.1002/ep.13157 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
“The specific 109 predominant tropical species of microalgae Chlorella vulgaris was preferred for this 110 TEA due to the availability of this species in the selected region and high content of 111 carbohydrate amount[25, 26].”
BackgroundAlgae utilization and its role in the development of green cities
Chew, K. W., Khoo, K. S., Foo, H. T., Chia, S. R., Walvekar, R., & Lim, S. S. (2020) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.129322 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
A review on machine learning approaches for microalgae cultivation systems
Syed, T., Krujatz, F., Ihadjadene, Y., Mühlstädt, G., Hamedi, H., Mädler, J., & Urbas, L. (2024) · Computers in Biology and Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.compbiomed.2024.108248 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Life cycle assessment of microalgae production in a raceway pond with alternative culture media
Schneider, R. D. C. D. S., Lima, M. D. M., Hoeltz, M., Neves, F. D. F., John, D. K., & de Azevedo, A. (2018) · Algal Research · doi:10.1016/j.algal.2018.04.012 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Effects of global environmental change on microalgal photosynthesis, growth and their distribution.
Kholssi, R., Lougraimzi, H., & Moreno-Garrido, I. (2023) · Marine Environmental Research · doi:10.1016/j.marenvres.2023.105877 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Biomass to biofuel: Impacts and mitigation of environmental, health, and socioeconomic challenges
Chowdhury, P., Mahi, N. A., Yeassin, R., Chowdhury, N.-U.-R., & Farrok, O. (2025) · Energy Conversion and Management X · doi:10.1016/j.ecmx.2025.100889 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Abate, R., Oon, Y.-S., Oon, Y.-L., & Bi, Y. (2024) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e31170 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
“As the cultivation of microalga-bacteria consortia provides enhanced outputs, the application of this technology on a mass scale is imminent, potentially creating a negative impact on the environment [268].”
BackgroundVuppaladadiyam, A. K., Prinsen, P., Raheem, A., Luque, R., & Zhao, M. M. (2018) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.8b02876 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Wen, Y., He, Y., Ji, X., Li, S., Chen, L., Zhou, Y., Wang, M., & Chen, B. (2017) · Bioresource Technology · doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2017.06.094 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Mu, D., Ruan, R., Addy, M., Mack, S., Chen, P., & Zhou, Y. (2017) · Bioresource Technology · doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2016.12.108 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Cole, A. J., Neveux, N., Whelan, A., Morton, J., Vis, M., de Nys, R., & Paul, N. A. (2016) · Algal Research · doi:10.1016/j.algal.2016.09.026 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Pires, J. C. M. (2017) · Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.197 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Optimisation of microalgal cultivation via nutrient-enhanced strategies: the biorefinery paradigm
Figueroa-Torres, G. M., Pittman, J. K., & Theodoropoulos, C. (2021) · Biotechnology for Biofuels · doi:10.1186/s13068-021-01912-2 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Genetically engineered microalgae for enhanced bioactive compounds
Ahmad Kamal, A. H., Mohd Hamidi, N. F., Zakaria, M. F., Ahmad, A., Harun, M. R., Chandra Segaran, T., & Jusoh, M. (2024) · Discover Applied Sciences · doi:10.1007/s42452-024-06116-5 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
“The primary apprehensions involve the potential for genetically modified microalgae to outcompete native species due to their enhanced adaptability, leading to possible ecological disruptions [170].”
3D Printing of Functional Microalgal Silk Structures for Environmental Applications
Zhao, S., Guo, C., Kumarasena, A., Omenetto, F. G., & Kaplan, D. L. (2019) · ACS Biomaterials Science & Engineering · doi:10.1021/acsbiomaterials.9b00554 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
The industrial ecology of freshwater macroalgae for biomass applications
Lawton, R. J., Cole, A. J., Roberts, D. A., Paul, N. A., & de Nys, R. (2016) · Algal Research · doi:10.1016/j.algal.2016.08.019 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Fixing the Broken Phosphorus Cycle: Wastewater Remediation by Microalgal Polyphosphates
Slocombe, S. P., Zúñiga-Burgos, T., LiLi, C., Wood, N. J., Camargo‐Valero, M. A., & Baker, A. (2020) · Frontiers in Plant Science · doi:10.3389/fpls.2020.00982 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“…under either heterotrophic or phototrophic conditions, without the need for supplemental nutrient sources, and the resulting algal biomass can be used to enhance biogas production in existing AD digesters or applied directly as a slow-release fertilizer (Usher et al., 2014; Schreiber et al., 2018).”
BackgroundSelf-citationNitrous oxide emissions from microalgae: potential pathways and significance
Plouviez, M., Shilton, A. N., Packer, M. A., & Guieysse, B. (2018) · Journal of Applied Phycology · doi:10.1007/s10811-018-1531-1 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“Microalgal N2O synthesis is concerning because N2O is a potent greenhouse gas (GHG) and ozone-depleting atmospheric pollutant (Ravishankara et al. 2009) and because microalgae (a term henceforth used to broadly describe prokaryotic and eukaryotic phototrophs) are ubiquitous in the environment, and their growth is ofte…”
InfluentialEl-Dakar, M. A., Ramzy, R. R., Ji, H., & Plath, M. W. (2020) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.122288 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Soudagar, M. E. M., Kiong, T. S., Jathar, L. D., Ghazali, N. N. N., Ramesh, S. S. R., Awasarmol, U. V., & Ong, H. C. (2024) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.141540 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Habibi, S. R., Pons, O., & Peña, D. M. (2022) · Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments · doi:10.1016/j.seta.2022.102001 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Khalekuzzaman, M., Alamgir, M., Islam, M. B., & Hasan, M. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0225458 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“The energy balance for fuel produced from microalgae looks promising, despite contradictions between many studies [6,7].”
BackgroundKhor, W. H., Kang, H.-S., Lim, J.-W., Iwamoto, K., Tang, C. H.-H., Goh, P. S., Quen, L. K., Shaharuddin, N. M. R. B., & Lai, N. Y. G. (2022) · Aquacultural Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.aquaeng.2022.102269 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Metal-based flocculation to harvest microalgae: a look beyond separation efficiency
Rossi, S., Visigalli, S., Cascino, F. C., Mantovani, M., Mezzanotte, V., Parati, K., Canziani, R., Turolla, A., & Ficara, E. (2021) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149395 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Ashour, M., & Omran, A. M. M. (2022) · Fermentation · doi:10.3390/fermentation8090466 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Nordio, R., Viviano, E., Sánchez‐Zurano, A., González-Hernández, J., Rodríguez‐Miranda, E., Guzmán, J. L., & Acién, F. G. (2023) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.118899 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Lindberg, R. H., Namazkar, S., Lage, S., Östman, M., Gojkovic, Ž., Funk, C., Gentili, F. G., & Tysklind, M. (2021) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.129763 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Environmental Impact of Meat Protein Substitutes: A Mini-Review
Lee, D. Y., Mariano, E., Choi, Y., Park, J., Han, D., Kim, J. S., Park, J. W., Namkung, S., Li, Q., Li, X., et al. (2024) · Food Science of Animal Resources · doi:10.5851/kosfa.2024.e109 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“Microalgae also have a minimal impact on water quality and can facilitate large-scale protein production by utilizing food waste as a carbon source (Smetana et al., 2017; Usher et al., 2014).”
Olabi, A. G., Alami, A. H., Alasad, S., Aljaghoub, H., Sayed, E. T., Shehata, N., Rezk, H., & Abdelkareem, M. A. (2022) · Fermentation · doi:10.3390/fermentation8110649 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Sustained Photosynthesis and Oxygen Generation of Microalgae-Embedded Silk Fibroin Hydrogels
Fu, Y., Xie, X., Wang, Y., Liu, J., Zheng, Z., Kaplan, D. L., & Wang, X. (2021) · ACS Biomaterials Science & Engineering · doi:10.1021/acsbiomaterials.1c00168 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Popa, M. D., Simionov, I.-A., Petrea, Ș. M., Georgescu, L., Ifrim, G. A., & Iticescu, C. (2025) · Water · doi:10.3390/w17020260 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Light management by algal aggregates in living photosynthetic hydrogels
Chua, S. T., Smith, A., Murthy, S., Murace, M., Yang, H. S., Schertel, L., Kühl, M., Cicuta, P., Smith, A. G., Wangpraseurt, D., et al. (2024) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2316206121 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“…gel - encapsulated cultures provide distinct advantages for specific applications such as carbon capture (27), water treatment (28–30), and noninvasive metabolite harvesting (31), while preventing contamination of surrounding natural water systems and potential threats to native species (32).”
Nashath, F. Z., Ng, Y. J., Khoo, K. S., & Show, P. L. (2025) · Biomass and Bioenergy · doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2025.108092 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Sustainable Microalgae and Cyanobacteria Biotechnology
López-Hernández, J.-F., Kean-Meng, T., Asencio-Alcudia, G.-G., Asyraf-Kassim, M., Alvarez-González, C.-A., & Márquez-Rocha, F.-J. (2022) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app12146887 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Role of Microalgae in Sustainable Energy and Environment
Ahmad, I., Yuzir, A., Mohamad, S. E., Iwamoto, K., & Abdullah, N. (2021) · IOP Conference Series Materials Science and Engineering · doi:10.1088/1757-899x/1051/1/012059 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“TEA of bioethanol production from microalgae estimate suitability of the plant with respect to total investment, total cost ant total net profit [54].”
BackgroundPotential of floating production for delta and coastal cities
Zanon, B. D. B., Roeffen, B., Czapiewska, K. M., de Graaf, R., & Mooij, P. R. (2017) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.03.048 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“To reduce energy consumption of algae systems it is fundamental to make clever use of environmental conditions such as energy flows, proximity to nutrients, CO₂ and water (Jacobi and Posten, 2013; Usher et al., 2014).”
BackgroundShi, J., Hu, M., Xia, Z., Zhang, J., Wang, Z., Li, L., & Zhao, Y. (2024) · Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety · doi:10.1016/j.ecoenv.2024.117048 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Application of live Chlorococcum aquaticum biomass for the removal of Pb(II) from aqueous solutions
Liyanage, L. M. M., Lakmali, W. G. M., Athukorala, S. N. P., & Jayasundera, K. B. (2020) · Journal of Applied Phycology · doi:10.1007/s10811-020-02242-w · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Mixing Seawater with a Little Wastewater to Produce Bioenergy from Limnetic Algae
Pei, H., & Jiang, L. (2018) · Trends in biotechnology · doi:10.1016/j.tibtech.2017.12.002 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Kumar, B., & Verma, P. (2020) · Clean Energy Production Technologies · doi:10.1007/978-981-15-9593-6_23 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
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- Authors
- Usher, P. K., Ross, A. B., Camargo-Valero, M. A., Tomlin, A. S., & Gale, W. F.
- Affiliations
- University of Leeds (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Ross, Andrew B.
- ORCID
- Tomlin, Alison S.
- Venue
- Biofuels
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2014-05-04
- Volume
- 5
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 331-349
- ISSN
- 1759-7269 (ISSN-L)
- 1759-7277
- OpenAlex
- W2132575284
- Cited by
- 160
- References
- 121
- Citations by year
- 2026: 15 · 2025: 20 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 8 · 2015: 1
- FWCI
- 2.09
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Biofuels (publishedVersion)
- White Rose Research Online (University of Leeds, The University of Sheffield, University of York) (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- University of Leeds
- Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EP/I014365/1)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Energy › Renewable Energy, Sustainability and the Environment › Algal biology and biofuel production
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Agronomy and Crop Science › Bioenergy crop production and management
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Aquatic Ecosystems and Phytoplankton Dynamics
- Keywords
- microalgae cultivation, environmental impact, wastewater management, emission control, land use change, genetically modified organisms, aquaculture, atmospheric effects, terrestrial biosphere
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