The promising future of microalgae: Current status, challenges, and optimization of a sustainable and renewable industry for biofuels, feed, and other products

May combine two claims.

1 kg of algal biomass can fix 1.83 kg of CO2 furthermore some species use SOx and NOx as nutrient flow along with CO2.

“It has been reported that 1 kg of algal biomass is can fix 1.83 kg of CO2 furthermore some species use SOx and NOx as nutrient flow along with CO2 [11].”

• cites [11] Gendy TS, El-Temtamy SA. Commercialization potential aspects of microalgae for biofuel production: an overview. Egypt J Pet. 2013;22:43–51. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Microalgae have extensive application potential in the renewable energy, biopharmaceutical, and nutraceutical industries.

“Microalgae have recently attracted considerable interest worldwide, due to their extensive application potential in the renewable energy, biopharmaceutical, and nutraceutical industries.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Several microalgae species have been investigated for their potential as value-added products with remarkable pharmacological and biological qualities.

“Several microalgae species have been investigated for their potential as value-added products with remarkable pharmacological and biological qualities.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Biofuels including algal fuels have oxygen levels of 10-45% and very low levels of sulphur emission while petroleum-based fuels have no oxygen levels with high sulphur emission.

“Biofuels including algal fuels have oxygen levels of 10–45% and very low levels of sulphur emission while petroleum-based fuels have no oxygen levels with high sulphur emission.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Microalgae have a significant ability to convert atmospheric CO2 to useful products such as carbohydrates, lipids, and other bioactive metabolites.

“Microalgae have a significant ability to convert atmospheric CO2 to useful products such as carbohydrates, lipids, and other bioactive metabolites.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Microalgae are renewable, sustainable, and economical sources of biofuels, bioactive medicinal products, and food ingredients.

“Microalgae are renewable, sustainable, and economical sources of biofuels, bioactive medicinal products, and food ingredients.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Algae are produced in quantity and sold directly as food and nutrient supplements, while their processed products or extracts are used in biopharmaceuticals and cosmetics.

“Algae are produced in quantity and sold directly as food and nutrient supplements, while their processed products or extracts are used in biopharmaceuticals and cosmetics [5–7].”

• cites [5] Luiten EE, Akkerman I, Koulman A, Kamermans P, Reith H, Barbosa MJ, Sipkema D, Wijffels RH. Realizing the promises of marine biotechnology. Biomol Eng. 2003;20:429–39. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [6] Michael A. Borowitzka high-value products from microalgae their development and commercialization. J Appl Phycol. 2013;25:743–56. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [7] Pulz O, Gross G. Valuable products from biotechnology of microalgae. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2004;65(6):635–48. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Microalgae algae-based fuels are ecofriendly, nontoxic and with strong potential of fixing global CO2.

“Microalgae algae-based fuels are ecofriendly, nontoxic and with strong potential of fixing global CO2.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The advantageous features of biofuels produced from biomass are renewability and a significantly smaller contribution to environmental pollution and global warming.

“The advantageous features of biofuels produced from biomass are renewability and a significantly smaller contribution to environmental pollution and global warming.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

CO2 constitutes 50% of dry weight of algal biomass.

“CO2 constitutes 50% of dry weight of algal biomass.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

As biofuels, microalgae are a perfect substitute to liquid fossil fuels with respect to cost, renewability, and environmental concerns.

“As biofuels, they are a perfect substitute to liquid fossil fuels with respect to cost, renewability, and environmental concerns.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The most challenging and crucial issues are enhancing microalgae growth rate and product synthesis, dewatering algae culture for biomass production, pretreating biomass, and optimizing the fermentation process in case of algal bioethanol production.

“The most challenging and crucial issues are enhancing microalgae growth rate and product synthesis, dewatering algae culture for biomass production, pretreating biomass, and optimizing the fermentation process in case of algal bioethanol production.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Biofuels such as biodiesel and bioethanol are proving to be excellent alternative fuels and can be produced from several resources of biomass, such as food crops, crop wastes or fruits, woody parts of plants, garbage, and algae.

“Biofuels such as biodiesel and bioethanol are proving to be excellent alternative fuels and can be produced from several resources of biomass, such as food crops, crop wastes or fruits, woody parts of plants, garbage, and algae [8, 9].”

• cites [8] Harun R, Danquah MK, Forde GM. Microalgal biomass as a fermentation feedstock for bioethanol production. J Chem Technol Biotechnol. 2010;85:199–203. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [9] Ho SH, Chen WM, Chang G. Scenedesmus obliquus CNW-N as a potential candidate for CO2 mitigation and biodiesel production. Bioresour Technol. 2010;101(22):8725–30. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Microalgae are feasible sources for bioenergy and biopharmaceuticals in general, but some limitations and challenges remain, which must be overcome to upgrade the technology from pilot-phase to industrial level.

“Although microalgae are feasible sources for bioenergy and biopharmaceuticals in general, some limitations and challenges remain, which must be overcome to upgrade the technology from pilot-phase to industrial level.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Biofuels are non-polluting, locally available, accessible, sustainable and reliable fuel obtained from renewable sources.

“Biofuels are non-polluting, locally available, accessible, sustainable and reliable fuel obtained from renewable sources.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Mechanical methods such as ultra-sonication, microwaves, and beating have been used to degrade algal biomass.

“Some researchers have used mechanical methods, such as ultra-sonication, microwaves, and beating, to degrade algal biomass [114, 115].”

• cites [114] Passos F, Hernandez-Marine M, Garcia J, Ferrer I. Long-term anaerobic digestion of microalgae grown in HRAP for wastewater treatment. Effect of microwave pretreatment. Water Res. 2014;49:351–9. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [115] Zhao G, Chen X, Wang L, Zhou S, Feng H, Chen WN, et al. Ultrasound assisted extraction of carbohydrates from microalgae as feedstock for yeast fermentation. Bioresour Technol. 2013;128:337–44. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Microalgae can feed on industrial wastes and the processing energy is less than the energy produced by the algae.

“Microalgae can feed on industrial wastes and the processing energy is less than the energy produced by the algae [20–22].”

• cites [20] Paniagua-Michel J, Farfan BC, Buckle Ramirez LF. Culture of marine microalgae with natural biodigested resources. Aquaculture. 2011;64:249–56. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [21] Singh A, Ohlsen SI. A critical review of biochemical conversion, sustainability and life cycle assessment of algal biofuels. Appl Energy. 2011;88:3548–55. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [22] Zamora Castro JE, Paniagua-Michel J, Lezama- Cervantes C. A novel approach for bioremediation of a coastal marine wastewater effluent based on artificial microbial mats. Mar Biotechnol. 2008;10:181–9. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Microalgae are not edible therefore no effect on human and animal's food chain.

“In several aspects, microalgae feedstock is competent and preferable to produce biofuels for examples microalgae don not require cultivable land and fresh water for cultivation, they are not edible therefore no effect on human and animal’s food chain, can be grown to serval folds irrespective to seasonal conditions, mitigation of atmospheric CO2 and treatment of waste water [18, 19].”

• cites [18] Park H, Lee C. Theoretical calculations on the feasibility of microalgal biofuels: utilization of marine resources could help realizing the potential of microalgae. Biotechnol J. 2016;11(11):1461–70. https://doi.org/10.1002/biot.201600041 . sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [19] Pandey A. Microalgae biomass production for CO2 mitigation and biodiesel production. J Microbiol Exp. 2017;4(4):00117. https://doi.org/10.15406/jmen.2017.04.00117 . sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Absence of lignocellulosic materials in microalgae cell wall facilitate the pretreatment process and reduce overall cost of production.

“Absence of lignocellulosic materials in microalgae cell wall facilitate the pretreatment process and reduce overall cost of production.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Proper shaking and mixing of the culture in the bioreactor is necessary for uniform distribution of light energy to avail the same strength to all the cells to convert maximum light energy to biomass.

“Proper shaking and mixing of the culture in the bioreactor is necessary for uniform distribution of light energy to avail the same strength to all the cells to convert maximum light energy to biomass.”

May combine two claims.

Microalgae can mitigate atmospheric CO2 and treat waste water.

“In several aspects, microalgae feedstock is competent and preferable to produce biofuels for examples microalgae don not require cultivable land and fresh water for cultivation, they are not edible therefore no effect on human and animal’s food chain, can be grown to serval folds irrespective to seasonal conditions, mitigation of atmospheric CO2 and treatment of waste water [18, 19].”

• cites [18] Park H, Lee C. Theoretical calculations on the feasibility of microalgal biofuels: utilization of marine resources could help realizing the potential of microalgae. Biotechnol J. 2016;11(11):1461–70. https://doi.org/10.1002/biot.201600041 . sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [19] Pandey A. Microalgae biomass production for CO2 mitigation and biodiesel production. J Microbiol Exp. 2017;4(4):00117. https://doi.org/10.15406/jmen.2017.04.00117 . sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Microalgae store photosynthetic products as cellulose, starch, and hemicellulose; some species also accumulate galactan.

“Microalgae store photosynthetic products as cellulose, starch, and hemicellulose; some species also accumulate galactan.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Currently, the USA and Brazil are the world leaders in the production of bioethanol. Their contribution is approximately 75-80% of the world total bioethanol production.

“Currently, the USA and Brazil are the world leaders in the production of bioethanol. Their contribution is approximately 75–80% of the world total bioethanol production [32, 34].”

• cites [32] Walker GM. Fuel alcohol: current production and future challenges. J Inst Brew. 2011;117(1):3–22. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [34] Jegannathan KR, Chan ES, Ravindra P. Harnessing biofuels: a global Renaissance in energy production? Renew Sustain Energy Rev. 2009;13(8):2163–8. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Crop foods require arable land and large amounts of water, which makes their use for fuel production unsustainable and thus, incomputable as alternative liquid fuels.

“Additionally, crop foods require arable land and large amounts of water, which makes their use for fuel production unsustainable and thus, incomputable as alternative liquid fuels [23, 24].”

• cites [23] Gavrilescu M, Chisti Y. Biotechnology a sustainable alternative for chemical industry. Biotechnol Adv. 2005;23:471–99. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [24] Hannon M, Gimpel J, Tran M, Rasala B, Mayfield S. Biofuels from algae: challenges and potential. Biofuels. 2010;1(5):763–84. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Depending on the purpose of pretreatment, chemical, biological, thermochemical, or thermophysical methods are used, sometimes in combination.

“Depending on the purpose of pretreatment, chemical, biological, thermochemical, or thermophysical methods are used, sometimes in combination [105, 106].”

• cites [105] Alvira P, Tomas-Pejo E, Ballesteros M, Negro MJ. Pretreatment technologies for an efficient bioethanol production process based on enzymatic hydrolysis: a review. Bioresour Technol. 2010;101:4851–61. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [106] Chandra RP, Bura R, Mabee WE, Berlin A, Pan X, Saddler JN. Substrate pretreatment: the key to effective enzymatic hydrolysis of lignocellulosics? Adv Biochem Eng Biotechnol. 2007;108:67–93.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Most of the microalgae species are favorable for biodiesel production due to high lipids contents 50-70% and may reach to 80% such as in case of the microlaga B. braunii which accumulate up to 80% of oil in it biomass.

“Most of the microalgae species are favorable for biodiesel production due to high lipids contents 50–70% and may reach to 80% such as in case of the microlaga B. braunii which accumulate up to 80% of oil in it biomass [25–27].”

• cites [25] Chisti Y. Biodiesel from microalgae. Biotechnol Adv. 2007;25(3):294–306. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [26] Powell EE, Hill GA. Economic assessment of an integrated bioethanol-biodiesel-microbial fuel cell facility utilizing yeast and photosynthetic algae. Chem Eng Res Des. 2009;87(9):1340–8. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [27] Mata TM, Martins AA, Caetano NS. Microalgae for biodiesel production and other applications: a review. Renew Sust Energy Rev. 2010;14(1):217–32. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Bioethanol is one of the major and clean biofuel used as transportation fuel.

“Bioethanol is one of the major and clean biofuel used as transportation fuel.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Many countries in Asia, Europe, and America have started industrialization of bioenergy from microalgae biomass.

“Many countries in Asia, Europe, and America have started industrialization of bioenergy from microalgae biomass.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

After lysis of algal cells, macromolecules of sugars need saccharification to break glycosidic linkages between monomers to release monomer units.

“After lysis of the cells the macromolecules of sugars need saccharification which mean to break the α-(1 → 4), α-(1 → 6), β-(1 → 3) and β-(1 → 6) glycosidic linkages between the monomers to release the monomers units [107].”

• cites [107] Rajarapu SP, Scharf ME. Saccharification of agricultural lignocellulose feedstocks and protein-level responses by a termite gut-microbe bioreactor. Front Energy Res. 2017;5:5. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Microalgae feedstock is competent and preferable to produce biofuels because microalgae do not require cultivable land and fresh water for cultivation.

“In several aspects, microalgae feedstock is competent and preferable to produce biofuels for examples microalgae don not require cultivable land and fresh water for cultivation, they are not edible therefore no effect on human and animal’s food chain, can be grown to serval folds irrespective to seasonal conditions, mitigation of atmospheric CO2 and treatment of waste water [18, 19].”

• cites [18] Park H, Lee C. Theoretical calculations on the feasibility of microalgal biofuels: utilization of marine resources could help realizing the potential of microalgae. Biotechnol J. 2016;11(11):1461–70. https://doi.org/10.1002/biot.201600041 . sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [19] Pandey A. Microalgae biomass production for CO2 mitigation and biodiesel production. J Microbiol Exp. 2017;4(4):00117. https://doi.org/10.15406/jmen.2017.04.00117 . sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Weak acids cannot successfully lyse cells to extract inner sugars, while excessively strong acids reduce sugars to furfural, decreasing the final yield of monomeric sugars.

“Weak acids cannot successfully lyse the cells to extract the inner sugars, while excessively strong acids reduce sugars to furfural, thereby decreasing the final yield of monomeric sugars.”

May combine two claims.

Mechanical methods of pretreatment yield biodiesel, while enzymatic and chemical methods are used in bioethanol production because fermentative bioethanol requires degradation of cellulose, hemicellulose, and starch.

“Thus, mechanical methods of pretreatment yield biodiesel, while enzymatic and chemical methods (including acidic hydrolysis) are used in bioethanol production, because fermentative bioethanol production requires degradation of cellulose, hemicellulose, and starch.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The algal fuels technology is still incipient, and much improvement is required to make it commercially attractive to both, investors and consumers.

“The algal fuels technology is still incipient, and much improvement is required to make it commercially attractive to both, investors and consumers.”

May combine two claims.

Microalgae are rapidly growing photosynthetic organisms having potential of transforming 9-10% of solar energy (average sunlight irradiance) into biomass with a theoretical yield of about 77 g/biomass/m2/day which is about 280 ton/ha/year.

“Microalgae are rapidly growing photosynthetic organisms having potential of transforming 9–10% of solar energy (average sunlight irradiance) into biomass with a theoretical yield of about 77 g/biomass/m2/day which is about 280 ton/ha/year [13, 14].”

• cites [13] Formighieri C, Franck F, Bassi R. Regulation of the pigment optical density of an algal cell: filling the gap between photosynthetic productivity in the laboratory and in mass culture. J Biotechnol. 2012;162:115–23. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [14] Melis A. Solar energy conversion efficiencies in photosynthesis: minimizing the chlorophyll antennae to maximize efficiency. Plant Sci. 2009;177:272–80. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Second generation biofuels involve terrestrial plants, especially food crops as feedstocks, a highly controversial issue, since biofuels production from food crops can only occur at the expense of their use as food and feed.

“Second generation biofuels involve terrestrial plants, especially food crops as feedstocks, a highly controversial issue, since biofuels production from food crops can only occur at the expense of their use as food and feed.”

• cites [23] Gavrilescu M, Chisti Y. Biotechnology a sustainable alternative for chemical industry. Biotechnol Adv. 2005;23:471–99. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [24] Hannon M, Gimpel J, Tran M, Rasala B, Mayfield S. Biofuels from algae: challenges and potential. Biofuels. 2010;1(5):763–84. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Microalgae are capable of producing algal oil 58,700 L/hac which can produce 121,104 L/hac biodiesels.

“Microalgae are capable of producing algal oil 58,700 L/hac which can produce 121,104 L/hac biodiesels [11, 28, 29].”

• cites [11] Gendy TS, El-Temtamy SA. Commercialization potential aspects of microalgae for biofuel production: an overview. Egypt J Pet. 2013;22:43–51. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [28] Medipally SR, Fatimah M, Banerjee YS, Shariff M. Microalgae as sustainable renewable energy feedstock for biofuel production. Biomed Res Int. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/519513 . sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [29] Gouveia L, Oliveira AC. Microalgae as a raw material for biofuels production. J Ind Microbiol Biot. 2009;36:269–74. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Microalgae produce vitamins, which elevates their importance as a nutritional food for people and animals.

“They produce vitamins, which elevates their importance as a nutritional food for people and animals [136, 142].”

• cites [136] Borowitzka MA. Vitamins and fine chemicals from microalgae. In: Borowitzka MA, Borowitzka LJ, editors. Micro-algal biotechnology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1998. p. 153–96.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [142] Cuellar-Bermudez SP, Aguilar-Hernandez I, Cardenas-Chavez DL, Ornelas-Soto N, Romero-Ogawa MA, Parra-Saldivar R. Extraction and purification of high-value metabolites from microalgae: essential lipids, astaxanthin and phycobiliproteins. Microb Biotechnol. 2015;8:190–209. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Microalgae synthesize starch, cellulose, hemicelluloses, and other polysaccharides from simple monomeric sugars, basically glucose.

“Microalgae synthesize starch, cellulose, hemicelluloses, and other polysaccharides from simple monomeric sugars: basically, glucose.”

May combine two claims.

Microalgae are an excellent source of food and other important bioproducts, such as natural antibiotics.

“Microalgae are an excellent source of food and other important bioproducts, such as natural antibiotics [137–139].”

• cites [137] Becker W. Microalgae in human and animal nutrition. In: Richmond A, editor. Handbook of microalgal culture. Oxford: Blackwell; 2004. p. 312–51.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [138] Borowitzka MA. Microalgae as sources of pharmaceuticals and other biologically active compounds. J Appl Phycol. 1995;7:3–15. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [139] Cornet JF. Le technoscopeles photobioreacteurs. Biofutur. 1998;176:1–10.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Cultivation of microalgae started only a few decades ago, when it became clear that the fast-growing world population was likely to suffer a lack of protein-rich food stuffs.

“Cultivation of microalgae started only a few decades ago, when it became clear that the fast-growing world population was likely to suffer a lack of protein-rich food stuffs [136].”

• cites [136] Borowitzka MA. Vitamins and fine chemicals from microalgae. In: Borowitzka MA, Borowitzka LJ, editors. Micro-algal biotechnology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1998. p. 153–96.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Lipids in algal cells are present mainly in the form of glycerol, esterified sugars to different types of fatty acids (12-22 carbon atoms).

“Lipids in algal cells are present mainly in the form of glycerol, esterified sugars to different types of fatty acids (12–22 carbon atoms).”

May combine two claims.

Mechanical methods do not contaminate the environment but impose higher costs due to energy consumption.

“They do not contaminate the environment, but they do impose higher costs, due to the consumption of energy [116, 117].”

• cites [116] Goettel M, Eing C, Gusbeth C, Straessner R, Frey W. Pulsed electric field assisted extraction of intracellular valuables from microalgae. Algal Res. 2013;2(4):401–8. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [117] Sheng J, Vannela R, Rittmann BE. Evaluation of cell-disruption effects of pulsed-electric-field treatment of Synechocystis PCC 6803. Environ Sci Technol. 2011;45(8):3795–802. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Algae biomass contains different types of fermentable sugars, therefore combination of fermenter microorganisms is preferable and effective because different microorganisms have different rates of conversion for different substrates.

“Algae biomass contains different types of fermentable sugars, therefore combination of the fermenter microorganisms is preferable and effective, because different microorganisms have different rates of conversion for different substrates [134].”

• cites [134] Khan MI, Lee MG, Shin JH, Kim JD. Pretreatment optimization of the biomass of Microcystis aeruginosa for efficient bioethanol production. AMB Express. 2017;7:19. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

For bioethanol production to be viable, all the different types of sugars (pentoses and hexoses) must be converted to bioethanol.

“For bioethanol production to be viable, all the different types of sugars (pentoses and hexoses) must be converted to bioethanol.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The world energy crisis in the 1970s led to the identification of algae as renewable and sustainable sources for biofuels production, prompting the exploration of microalgae as a new field of research for fuels and other valuable products.

“The world energy crisis in the 1970s led to the identification of algae as renewable and sustainable sources for biofuels production, prompting the exploration of microalgae as a new field of research for fuels and other valuable products [10, 140].”

• cites [10] Paul Abishek M, Patel J, Prem Rajan A. Algae oil: a sustainable renewable fuel of future. Biotechnol Res Int. 2014;2014:272814. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/272814 . sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [140] Pulz O, Gross W. Valuable products from biotechnology of microalgae. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2004;65:635–48. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Scenedesmus dimorphus accumulated 53.7 w/w carbohydrate contents which on hydrolysis with sulfuric acids produced 80% fermentable sugars, indicating its feasibility for bioethanol production.

“Scenedesmus dimorphus accumulated 53.7 w/w carbohydrate contents which on hydrolysis with sulfuric acids produced 80% fermentable sugars, indicating its feasibility for bioethanol production [132].”

• cites [132] Chng LM, Lee KT, Chan DJ. Evaluation on microalgae biomass for bioethanol production. Mater Sci Eng A. 2017;206:12–8.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

About 5000 metric tons of dry algal biomass processed for bioproducts generates US$ 1.25 × 109 each year.

“According to one estimate, about 5000 metric tons of dry algal biomass processed for bioproducts generates US$ 1.25 × 109 each year [140].”

• cites [140] Pulz O, Gross W. Valuable products from biotechnology of microalgae. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2004;65:635–48. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Carbohydrates in algal biomass are mostly in polymeric form and need conversion to monomer units to be readily fermented by microorganisms to produce bioethanol.

“However, the carbohydrates in algal biomass are mostly in polymeric form and need conversion to monomers unit to be readily fermented by microorganisms to produce bioethanol [131].”

• cites [131] Al Abdallah Q, Nixon BT, Fortwendel JR. The enzymatic conversion of major algal and cyanobacterial carbohydrates to bioethanol. Front Energy Res. 2016. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenrg.2016.00036 . sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Microalgae produce and accumulate large amounts of lipids, which vary among species and are affected by various factors.

“Microalgae also produce and accumulate large amounts of lipids, which vary among species and are affected by various factors [145].”

• cites [145] Duong VT, Ahmed F, Thomas-Hall SR, Quigley S, Nowak E, Schenk PM. High protein- and high lipid-producing microalgae from northern australia as potential feedstock for animal feed and biodiesel. Front Bioeng Biotechnol. 2015;3:53. https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2015.00053 . sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

These microalgal pigments are crucial in therapies for tumorigenesis, neuronal disorders, and optical diseases.

“These pigments are crucial in therapies for tumorigenesis, neuronal disorders, and optical diseases.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The first large-scale culture of the microalga Chlorella for commercial purposes was reported in Japan in the 1960s.

“The first large-scale culture of the microalga Chlorella for commercial purposes was reported in Japan, in the 1960s [141].”

• cites [141] Iwamoto H. Industrial production of microalgal cell-mass and secondary products major industrial species Chlorella. In: Richmond A, editor. Handbook of microalgal culture. Oxford: Blackwell; 2004. p. 255–63.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The genetically engineered strain of Phaeodactylum tricornutum produces a maximum yield of 36.5 and 23.6% of DHA and EPA per total fatty acids of biomass, indicating its feasibility for production of EPA and DHA at commercial scale.

“It has been reported that the genetically engineered strain of P. tricornutum produce a maximum yield of 36.5 and 23.6% of DHA and EPA per total fatty acids of biomass indicating its feasibility for production of EPA and DHA at commercial scale [199].”

• cites [199] Chauton MS, Kjell IR, Niels HN, Ragnar T, Hans TK. A techno-economic analysis of industrial production of marine microalgae as a source of EPA and DHA-rich raw material for aquafeed: research challenges and possibilities. Aquaculture. 2015;436:95–103. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Among all the microcystins produced by M. aeruginosa, microcystin LR is the most toxic and causes the death of animals and humans upon oral contact.

“Among all the microcystins produced by M. aeruginosa, microcystin LR is the most toxic and causes the death of animals and humans upon oral contact.”

May combine two claims.

EPA and DHA are produced by several microalgae species, which are a sustainable and promising source and the only alternative to fish oils that are limited and unable to fulfill the required demands of EPA and DHA.

“EPA, DHA are produced by serval microalgae species sustainable and promising source and the only alternative to fish oils which are limited and unable to fulfill the required demands of EPA and DHA [193, 194].”

• cites [193] Sarrobert B, Dermoun D. Extraction et valorisation de molecules à haute valeur ajoutée chez la microalgae Porphyridium cruentum. Premier Colloque Scientifique Français sur la Biotechnologie des Microalgues et des Cyanobacteries Appliquée au Thermalisme, vol. 24. France: Centre d’Études Nucléaires de Cadarache; 2008. p. 109–14.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [194] Armenta RE, Valentine MC. Single-cell oils as a source of omega-3 fatty acids: an overview of recent advances. J Am Oil Chem Soc. 2013;90:167–82. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Microcystis aeruginosa produces blooms in response to unfavorable environmental conditions, with excessive synthesis and release of toxic metabolites known as microcystins.

“Microcystis aeruginosa produces blooms in response to unfavorable environmental conditions, with excessive synthesis and release of toxic metabolites known as microcystins.”

May combine two claims.

Porphyridium cruentum produces high quantities of vitamins E and C, as well as β-carotene (vitamin A).

“P. cruentum produces high quantities of vitamins E and C, as well as β-carotene (vitamin A) [204].”

• cites [204] Mus F, Toussaint JP, Cooksey KE, Fields MW, Gerlach R, Peyton BM, et al. Physiological and molecular analysis of carbon source supplementation and pH stress- induced lipid accumulation in the marine diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2013;97:3625–42. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Chaetoceros has been reported to produce 27.7 μg sterols per gram of dry weight.

“The microalga Chaetoceros has been reported to produce 27.7 μg sterols per gram of dry weight [177].”

• cites [177] Santhosh S, Dhandapani R, Hemalatha R. Bioactive compounds from Microalgae and its different applications—a review. Adv Appl Sci Res. 2016;7(4):153–8.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Nostoc produces the protein Cyanovirin, which has antiviral activities against HIV and influenza virus.

“Nostoc produce the protein Cyanovirin which have been reported for its antiviral activities against HIV an influenza virus [189].”

• cites [189] Zappe H, Snell ME, Bossard MJ. PEGylation of cyanovirin-N, an entry inhibitor of HIV. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2008;60(1):79–87. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

DHA, linoleic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid, arachidonic acid, and gamma-linolenic acid have been shown to suppress cholesterol levels, delay aging, guard membrane integrity, and prevent cardiovascular diseases.

“DHA, linoleic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid, arachidonic acid, and gamma-linolenic acid have been shown to suppress cholesterol levels, delay aging, guard membrane integrity, and prevent cardiovascular diseases [190, 191].”

• cites [190] Bannenberg G, Mallon C, Edwards H, Yeadon D, Yan K, Johnson H, Ismail A. Omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid content and oxidation state of fish oil supplements in New Zealand. Scientific Reports. 2017;7:1488. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [191] Hu FB, Bronner L, Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Rexrode KM, Albert CM. Fish and omega-3 fatty acid intake and risk of coronary heart disease in women. JAMA. 2002;287:1815–21. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

β-Carotene protects membrane lipids from peroxidation, which is linked with many severe and lethal diseases, such as cancer, cardiovascular disease, Parkinson's disease, and atherosclerosis.

“β-Carotene protects membrane lipids from peroxidation, which is linked with many severe and lethal diseases, such as cancer, cardiovascular disease, Parkinson’s disease, and atherosclerosis [167–169].”

• cites [167] Lobo V, Patil A, Phatak A, Chandra N. Free radicals, antioxidants and functional foods: impact on human health. Pharmacogn Rev. 2010;4(8):118–26. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [168] Uttara B, Singh AV, Zamboni P, Mahajan R. Oxidative stress and neurodegenerative diseases: a review of upstream and downstream antioxidant therapeutic options. Curr Neuropharmacol. 2009;7(1):65–74. https://doi.org/10.2174/157015909787602823 . sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [169] Pham-Huy LA, He H, Pham-Huy C. Free radicals, antioxidants in disease and health. Int J Biomed Sci. 2008;4(2):89–96. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Microalgal sterols have beneficial health effects like hypo-cholesterolemia, anticancer, anti-inflammatory and neurological diseases like Parkinson disease.

“Microalgal sterols have some beneficial health effects like hypo-cholesterolemia, anticancer, anti-inflammatory and neurological diseases like Parkinson disease [171, 172].”

• cites [171] Devaraj S, Jialal I. Vega-Lopez. Plant sterol-fortified orange juice effectively lowers cholesterol levels in mildly hypercholesterolemic healthy individuals. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2004;24:25–8. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [172] Kim HJ, Fan X, Gabbi C, Yakimchuk K, Parini P, Warner M. Liver X receptor β (LXRβ): a link between β-sitosterol and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis—Parkinson’s dementia Proc. Natl Acad Sci USA. 2008;105(6):2094–9. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Microcystis aeruginosa is the dominant microalga of the bloom-secreting microcystins, which have been reported to be lethal for animals and humans.

“M. aeruginosa is the dominant microalga of the bloom-secreting microcystins, which have been reported to be lethal for animals and humans.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Microcystins are hepatocyclic peptides with a C20 amino acid chain, which determines the degree of toxicity.

“The microcystins are hepatocyclic peptides with a C20 amino acid chain, which determines the degree of toxicity [206].”

• cites [206] Jungblut AD, Neilan BA. Molecular identification and evolution of the cyclic peptide hepatotoxins, microcystin and nodularin, synthetase genes in three orders of cyanobacteria. Arch Microbiol. 2006;185:107–14. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Lyngbya majuscula produces microcolin-A, an immunosuppressive agent.

“Lyngbya majuscula produces microcolin-A, an immunosuppressive agent [188].”

• cites [188] Arya V, Gupta VK. A review on marine immunomodulators. Int J PharmLife Sci. 2001;2(5):751–8.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Stress conditions are unfavorable environmental factors, such as strong light, high salinity, high temperature, deprivation of nitrogen or other nutrients, short-term exposure to UV radiation, or a combination of these factors.

“Stress conditions are unfavorable environmental factors, such as strong light, high salinity, high temperature, deprivation of nitrogen or other nutrients, short-term exposure to UV radiation, or a combination of these factors [152].”

• cites [152] Nobre BP, Villalobos F, Barragan BE, Oliveira AC, Batista AP, Marques PA, et al. A biorefinery from Nannochloropsis sp. microalga—extraction of oils and pigments. Production of biohydrogen from the leftover biomass. Bioresour Technol. 2013;135:128–36. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Neoxanthin and fucoxanthin inhibit the accumulation of fats, and allenic and hydroxyl groups must be present to differentiate adipocytes.

“Okada et al. [252] reported that neoxanthin and fucoxanthin inhibited the accumulation of fats and stated that allenic and hydroxyl groups must be present to differentiate adipocytes.”

• cites [252] Okada T, Nakai M, Maeda H, Hosokawa M, Sashima T, Miyashita K. Suppressive effect of neoxanthin on the differentiation of 3T3-L1 adipose cells. J Oleo Sci. 2008;57(6):345–51. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Cyanobacteria produce various metabolites by the ribosomal or non-ribosomal pathway, most of which are peptides or alkaloids.

“Cyanobacteria produce various metabolites by the ribosomal or non-ribosomal pathway. Most of these compounds are either peptides or alkaloids [241].”

• cites [241] Sivonen K, Leikoski N, Fewer DP, Jokela J. Cyanobactins—ribosomal cyclic peptides produced by cyanobacteria. App Microbiol Biotechnol. 2010;86(5):1213–25. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Fucoxanthin protects DNA from photooxidation.

“Moreover, fucoxanthin has been shown to protect DNA from photooxidation [237].”

• cites [237] Heo SJ, Jeon YJ. Protective effect of fucoxanthin isolated from Sargassum siliquastrum on UV-B induced cell damage. J Photochem Photobiol B. 2009;95:101–7. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Aerucyclamide is used in pharmaceutical products as an anti-plasmodial agent isolated from the blooming of M. aeruginosa.

“Aerucyclamide is used in pharmaceutical products as an anti-plasmodial agent isolated from the blooming of M. aeruginosa [238].”

• cites [238] Pen S, Scarone L, Manta E, Stewart L, Yardley V, et al. Synthesis of a Microcystis aeruginosa predicted metabolite with antimalarial activity. Bioorg Med Chem Lett. 2012;22(15):4994–7. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Phycobiliproteins (e.g., C-phycocyanin, R-phycoerythrin) are commercially used in the food and cosmetic industries as natural dyes.

“Phycobiliproteins (e.g., C-phycocyanin, R-phycoerythrin) are commercially used in the food and cosmetic industries as natural dyes [226].”

• cites [226] Sekar S, Chandramohan M. Phycobiliproteins as a commodity: trends in applied research, patents and commercialization. J Appl Phycol. 2008;20:113–36. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

ROS and NOS attack biomolecules like DNA, proteins, and membrane lipids, leading to many severe diseases including cancer, coronary arteries disease, obesity, diabetes, ischemic stroke, and Alzheimer disease.

“ROS (reactive oxygen species) and NOS (nitrogen reactive species) attack biomolecules like DNA, proteins, and membrane lipids, leading to many severe diseases including cancer, coronary arteries disease, obesity, diabetes, ischemic stroke, and Alzheimer disease [216].”

• cites [216] Ngo DN, Kim MM, Kim SK. Chitin oligosaccharides inhibit oxidative stress in live cells. Carbohydr Polym. 2006;74:228–34. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Karatungiols are active antimycotic agents produced by Amphidinium, which also have antiprotozoal activities.

“Karatungiols are active antimycotic agents produced by Amphidinium, which also have antiprotozoal activities [215].”

• cites [215] Washida K, Koyama T, Yamada K, Kitab M, Urmura D, et al. Karatungiols A and B two novel antimicrobial polyol compounds, from the symbiotic marine dinoflagellate Amphidinium sp. Tetrahedron Lett. 2006;47(15):2521–5. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Fucoxanthin has therapeutic effects for diabetes and induces the synthesis of arachidonic acid and DHA content in mouse livers.

“Fucoxanthin also has therapeutic effects for diabetes and induced the synthesis of arachidonic acid and DHA content in mouse livers [235].”

• cites [235] Tsukui T, Baba N, Hosokawa M, Sashima T, Miyashit K. Enhancement of hepatic docosahexaenoic acid and arachidonic acid contents in C57BL/6J mice by dietary fucoxanthin. Fish Sci. 2009;75:261–3. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The diatom Nitzschia pungens produces domoic acid, which causes poisoning of shellfish.

“The diatom Nitzschia pungens produces domoic acid, which causes poisoning of shellfish [213].”

• cites [213] Mos Lizzy. Domoic acid: a fascinating marine toxin. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol. 2001;9:79–85. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

As synthetic antioxidants have been shown to have side effects, natural antioxidants are sought after.

“As synthetic antioxidants have been shown to have side effects, natural antioxidants are sought after [218].”

• cites [218] Pena-Ramos E, Xiong Y. Antioxidative activity of whey protein hydrolysates in a liposomal system. J Dairy Sci. 2001;84:2577–83. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Gambierdiscus toxicus produces gambieric acids, which have antifungal activities.

“Gambierdiscus toxicus produces gambieric acids, which have antifungal activities [214].”

• cites [214] Donia M, Hamann MT. Marine natural products and their potential applications as anti-infective agents (review). Lancet Infect Dis. 2003;3:338–48. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Karatungiols synthesized by the dinoflagellate Amphidinium have antimycotic activities.

“Antimycotic activities have been reported for karatungiols, a group of compounds synthesized by the dinoflagellate Amphidinium [215].”

• cites [215] Washida K, Koyama T, Yamada K, Kitab M, Urmura D, et al. Karatungiols A and B two novel antimicrobial polyol compounds, from the symbiotic marine dinoflagellate Amphidinium sp. Tetrahedron Lett. 2006;47(15):2521–5. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Microalgae are useful in mitigation of elevated CO2 level and treatment of waste water.

“Microalgae useful in mitigation of elevated CO2 level and treatment of waste water.”

May combine two claims.

Microalgae are renewable, sustainable and economical sources of biofuels, bioactive medicinal products and food ingredients.

“Microalgae are tiny factories and renewable, sustainable and economical sources of biofuels, bioactive medicinal products and food ingredients.”

May combine two claims.

Fucoxanthin shows potential as an anti-cancer, anti-oxidant, anti-obesity, anti-diabetic, and anti-inflammatory agent.

“which shows potential as an anti-cancer, anti-oxidant, anti-obesity, anti-diabetic, and anti-inflammatory agent [257].”

• cites [257] Maeda H, Hosokawa M, Sashima T, Funayama K, Miyashita K. Effect of medium-chain triacylglycerols on anti-obesity effect of fucoxanthin. J Oleo Sci. 2007;56(12):615–21. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Upgradation of algal fuel and bioproducts technology from pilot scale to commercial level is possible by overcoming the associated challenges and limitations.

“Upgradation of algal fuel and bioproducts technology from pilot scale to commercial level is possible by overcoming the associated challenges and limitations.”