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Predicting Internet risks: a longitudinal panel study of gratifications-sought, Internet addiction symptoms, and social media use among children and adolescents
Open accessAbstract
This study used longitudinal panel survey data collected from 417 adolescents at 2 points in time 1 year apart. It examined relationships between Internet risks changes in Time 2 and social media gratifications-sought, Internet addiction symptoms, and social media use all measured at Time 1. By controlling for age, gender, education, and criterion variable scores in Internet addiction at Time 1, entertainment and instant messaging use at Time 1 significantly predicted increased Internet addiction measured at Time 2. The study also controlled for demographics and scores of criterion variables in Internet risks: targeted for harassment, privacy exposed, and pornographic or violent content consumed in Time 1. Gratifications-sought (including status-gaining, expressing opinions, and identity experimentation), Internet addiction symptoms (including withdrawal and negative life consequences), and social media use (in particular, blogs, and Facebook) significantly predicted Internet risk changes in Time 2. These findings suggest that, with their predictive power, these predictors at Time 1 could be used to identify those adolescents who are likely to develop Internet addiction symptoms and the likelihood of experiencing Internet risks based on their previous gratifications-sought, previous addiction symptoms, and their habits of social media use at Time 1.
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“Only very recently, the focus has shifted toward younger population groups [22-26].”
From Internet use and access, behavior, cyberbullying, and grooming: Results of an investigative whole city survey of adolescents (2017) · cites this paper as [26]
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Do educational affordances and gratifications drive intensive Facebook use among adolescents?
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“…mechanism for health improvement interventions (Hou et al., 2014; Saddichha et al., 2014), but can also enable such problems as Internet addiction (Leung, 2014) or pro-eating disorder online support groups (Rodgers et al., 2012) Telehealth interventions can help to deliver routine care while…”
BackgroundFerrara, P., Corsello, G., Ianniello, F., Sbordone, A., Ehrich, J. H. H., Giardino, I., & Pettoello‐Mantovani, M. (2017) · The Journal of Pediatrics · doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2017.09.054 · Cited by 54
“Internet Addiction was defined by preoccupation with the use of the Internet, repetitive thoughts about limiting and controlling the use of the Internet, failure to control the desire of access to the Internet, continuous use of the Internet despite the impairments at various levels of functionality, spending graduall…”
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Menon, D. (2022) · International Journal of Human-Computer Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijhcs.2022.102917 · Cited by 52
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Yüksel, M. Y., Çini, A., & Yasak, B. (2020) · Atatürk Üniversitesi Kazım Karabekir Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi · doi:10.33418/ataunikkefd.676402 · Cited by 46
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“The experts in the Internet domain have all emphasized the addictive nature of the Internet, especially in the student population (17, 18).”
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Tzavela, E. C., Karakitsou, C., Halapi, E. C., & Τσίτσικα, Ά. (2016) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2016.11.032 · Cited by 35
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“For example, Internet, shopping, gambling, gaming and sex addictions were all shown to more significantly associate with the high risk SMA profile than exercise and substance related addictive behaviors (King et al., 2014; Gainsbury et al., 2016a; Gainsbury et al., 2016b; Rose & Dhandayudham, 2014; Kamaruddin et al.,…”
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“When people use social media, the flow experience they get will increase their loyalty to these platforms (Zhou et al., 2010) and the frequency of SMU (Pelet et al., 2017), which boosts the risk of Internet addiction (Leung, 2014).”
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“When people were under stressors, they often unconsciously unlocked their phones and used online social media (40, 48), which might increase problematic social media use (18, 35).”
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BackgroundConnected but at Risk: Social Media Exposure and Psychiatric and Psychological Outcomes in Youth
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Farhat, K., Aslam, W., Arif, I., & Ahmed, Z. (2021) · IIM Kozhikode Society & Management Review · doi:10.1177/22779752211000479 · Cited by 16
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“52 In contrast, online gaming, often involving collaboration with strangers, may impact sleep patterns differently.”
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‘The Internet is all around us’: How children come to understand the Internet
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What Makes AI Addictive? The Role of Discounting, Risk Aversion and Self-regulation
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“In contrast, some studies find no significant, or weak associations between social media and mental wellbeing (Coyne et al., 2020 ; Leung, 2014 ; Puukko et al., 2020) or are very small (Orben, 2020 ).”
University Students Usage of Facebook: The Case of Obtained Gratifications and Typology of Its Users
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“It has also facilitated communication and resource sharing among individuals, organisations, and communities due to its flexibility and accessibility from different devices (Leung, 2014).”
BackgroundProblematic Linkages in Adolescents
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“Web use is a fixed conduct, which in plenty raises the danger of mental conditions [10].”
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“…confirmed H 3 because previous studies have reported a positive association between internet use/addiction and social media addiction among Turkish samples (e.g., Kircaburun, 2016; Sariçam & Adam Karduz 2018), similar to Far East (e.g., Leung, 2014), and US samples (Longstreet & Brooks, 2017).”
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“This social addiction reduces awareness and increases emotional capacity (Leung, 2014; Sriwilai & Charoensukmongkol, 2016).”
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“Therefore, people publish many aspects of their lives, even very personal ones, such as being pregnant, having a health problem that has them hospitalized or the most profound thoughts, and often aggressive against political or sports actors (Leung 2014; Li et al. 2015; Theivendran 2021).”
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“For the context of Internet use, Internet motives definition refers to Leung (2014) dan Chin Hooi (2011), motives are aspects that underlie or initiate teenagers' actions to use the Internet [5], [13].”
BackgroundAnalyzing User Behavior and Sentimental in Computer Mediated Communication
Alrumaih, A., Alsabah, R., Aleqabie, H. J., Mjhool, A. Y., Al-Sabbagh, A., & Baldwin, J. S. (2020) · Advances in intelligent systems and computing · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-51859-2_26 · Cited by 3
Gratification disorder in a toddler: perils of excess screen time
Rai, R., Elon, N., Inamdar, P., Chowdary, S., & Kaniti, B. S. (2022) · International Journal of Contemporary Pediatrics · doi:10.18203/2349-3291.ijcp20220457 · Cited by 2
Dijkstra, A., & Bodamer, W. G. (2023) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12672 · Cited by 3
VegaStar: An Illegal Domain Detection System on Large-Scale Video Traffic
Tian, X., Zhu, Y., Li, Z., Zheng, C., Sun, Y., & Liu, Q. (2018) · IEEE International Conference on Trust, Security and Privacy in Computing and Communications (TrustCom) · doi:10.1109/trustcom/bigdatase.2018.00112 · Cited by 2
“For decades, parents and others have been consistently concerned about the potentially harmful influences of exposure to pornographic and violent content, being targeted for harassment, cyber-bullying, sexual solicitation, and Internet addiction [4].”
BackgroundA Systematic Research Review of Internet Addiction and Identity
Luppicini, R., & Alotaibi, S. (2021) · International Journal of Cyber Behavior Psychology and Learning · doi:10.4018/ijcbpl.2021010101 · Cited by 2
Goldstein, M. A., & Goldstein, M. C. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med/9780197640739.003.0010 · Cited by 4
Risiko Online Pada Remaja dan Pendidikan Literasi Media Baru
Luthfia, A. (2018) · Jurnal Communicate · doi:10.31479/jc.v2i1.70 · Cited by 2
Levani, Y., Utama, M. R., & Mochtar, N. M. (2022) · Gaceta Médica de Caracas · doi:10.47307/gmc.2022.130.s2.13 · Cited by 1
Özel Gereksinimli Öğrencilerin Sosyal Medya Kullanımlarının İncelenmesi
Kılınç, H. H., & ÖZEY, V. (2023) · Maarif Mektepleri Uluslararası Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi · doi:10.46762/mamulebd.1366479 · Cited by 1
Canoğulları, Ö., Yılmaz, Y., & Önder, F. C. (2024) · Türk Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi · doi:10.37217/tebd.1416884 · Cited by 2
The Theoretical Frameworks and Psychosocial Health Correlates of Equanimity: A Review
Jijina, P., & Biswas, U. N. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-96-0108-0_17 · Cited by 1
Trading on Social Trading Platforms
Tong, X., & Preda, A. (2025) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009428118.029 · Cited by 1
Liang, J., Xiao, Z., Ka-kuen, D. L., & Leung, L. W. (2025) · Social Media + Society · doi:10.1177/20563051251342225 · Cited by 2
“The respondents are social media users aged 17 to 54, who are perceived as the most active users of these platforms (Leung, 2014).”
Self-citationMeasures of Social Media Use Motives During Adolescence
Ketibian, C., Combes, C., & Potard, C. (2026) · Journal of Media Psychology Theories Methods and Applications · doi:10.1027/1864-1105/a000506 · Cited by 1
Özcan, M. Ş., Hong, Y.-J., & Choi, K. (2026) · Media Psychology · doi:10.1080/15213269.2026.2618675 · Cited by 1
Addiction to social media: a review
Basu, S., & V, S. (2017) · International Journal of Recent Scientific Research · doi:10.24327/ijrsr.2017.0804.0133
“However, a growing concern among medical practitioners and researchers is the addiction to social media (Leung, 2014).”
MALAYSIA, U. K., Bukhori, A. B. M., Ja'afar, M. H., & MALAYSIA, U. K. (2022) · International Journal of Public Health Research · doi:10.17576/ijphr.1202.2022.05 · Cited by 1
Singh, S., Datta, M., & Batra, S. (2023) · Psychological Studies · doi:10.1007/s12646-023-00731-9 · Cited by 1
“This finding further solidifies internet gaming as an addictive process as multiplayer online roleplaying games can immerse individuals in the fantasy world while role-playing a character (Leung, 2014).”
BackgroundInfluentialMusakuro, R. N. (2025) · International Journal of Business Ecosystem and Strategy (2687-2293) · doi:10.36096/ijbes.v7i2.698 · Cited by 1
“Furthermore, research shows social media can lead to addiction, especially for those who spend more time socialising on the internet (Leung, 2014).”
Alsó tagozatosok kortárskapcsolatai az offline és online térben+
Bacsa-Károlyi, B., & Fehérvári, A. (2021) · Educatio · doi:10.1556/2063.30.2021.1.8 · Cited by 1
“Ilyen például a cyberbullying, azaz internetes bántalmazás, zaklatás megjelenése (Kwan–Skoric 2013), a személyes adatok nem megfelelő biztonsága (Mascheroni–Ólafsson 2014) vagy a problémás internethasználat kialakulásának növekvő esélye (Kiss–Pikó 2017; Leung 2014; Zsolnai 2017).”
Privacy Attitudes and Behaviours of Autistic and Non-Autistic Teenagers on Social Networking Sites
Rocheleau, J. N. (2019) · doi:10.22215/etd/2019-13696 · Cited by 1
Bohnert, M., & Gracia, P. (2020) · SocArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/kf4tz · Cited by 1
Hariri, A. A. (2019) · International Journal of Sciences: Basic and Applied Research
MeshTrust: A CDN-Centric Trust Model for Reputation Management on Video Traffic
Tian, X., Zhu, Y., Zhao, L., Zheng, C., Liu, Q., & Sun, Y. (2019) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-22741-8_23
“exposure to pornographic and violent content, being targeted for harassment, cyber-bullying, sexual solicitation, and Internet addiction [12].”
BackgroundThe negative online experiences of maltreated children and adolescents
Wright, M. F. (2020) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-817499-9.00014-4
المخاطر الاجتماعیة والأمنیة لمواقع التواصل الاجتماعی على عینة من الطلاب بجامعة جنوب الوادی بقنا
عبدالحكيم, إ. س. (2021) · بحوث في علم المکتبات والمعلومات · doi:10.21608/sjrc.2021.148019
Metadata
- Authors
- Leung, L.
- Affiliations
- Chinese University of Hong Kong (HK)
- Corresponding author
- Leung, Louis
- ORCID
- Leung, Louis
- Venue
- Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2014-01
- Volume
- 2
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 424-439
- ISSN
- 2164-2850 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4346000
- OpenAlex
- W1992498885
- Cited by
- 113
- References
- 51
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 16 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 7 · 2015: 4
- FWCI
- 18.47
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Sexuality, Behavior, and Technology
- Social Sciences › Education › Child Development and Digital Technology
- Keywords
- internet addiction, online risks, adolescents, gratification sought, social media use, online harassment, privacy leakage, Facebook, blogs, instant messaging, risk prediction
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