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Cited by 1,276Impact of Technology on AdolescentsMedia and Digital CommunicationPersonality Traits and Psychology

Why do people use Facebook?

Open access
Nadkarni, Ashwini, Hofmann, Stefan G.·2012·Personality and Individual Differences
DOI 10.1016/j.paid.2011.11.007PMC PMC3335399
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Abstract

The social networking site, Facebook, has gained an enormous amount of popularity. In this article, we review the literature on the factors contributing to Facebook use. We propose a model suggesting that Facebook use is motivated by two primary needs: (1) The need to belong and (2) the need for self-presentation. Demographic and cultural factors contribute to the need to belong, whereas neuroticism, narcissism, shyness, self-esteem and self-worth contribute to the need for self presentation. Areas for future research are discussed.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This systematic review proposes that Facebook use is primarily motivated by two basic social needs: the need to belong and the need for self-presentation. It synthesizes 42 evidence-based studies, mostly in undergraduate and graduate samples, and calls for future cross-cultural research.

Key findings

  • From 279 records, 12 duplicates and 189 records with insufficient data were removed, leaving 78 records; only 42 were evidence-based studies on factors contributing to Facebook use. The authors propose a dual-factor model in which Facebook use is driven by the need to belong and the need for self-presentation.
  • Demographic and cultural findings include: females and ethnic minorities appear to use Facebook more often than males and Caucasians; Hispanic students made up 25% of MySpace users versus 14% of Facebook users; US students were more inclined than German students to post problematic content; and cultural differences appeared in the rated importance of groups, status updates, and photographs.
  • Personality findings include: extraversion was positively correlated with number of Facebook friends; shy individuals had fewer Facebook friends but spent more time on Facebook and had a more favorable attitude toward it; high narcissism and low self-esteem were associated with spending more than an hour a day on Facebook and posting self-promotional photos enhanced by Photoshop; Facebook users reported lower mean GPA and fewer hours per week studying than nonusers.
  • Self-presentation findings include: observers could accurately infer personality from Facebook profiles; a curvilinear relationship was found such that about 102 friends and about 300 friends were associated with lower social attractiveness; and profile photo physical attractiveness affected willingness to initiate friendships.

Methods

  • Systematic literature search using PubMed, PsychInfo, and the Cochrane Library with the keyword “Facebook”; 279 records were identified, 12 duplicates and 189 insufficient-data records were removed, leaving 78 records, of which 42 evidence-based studies were included.
  • Narrative review of technical features, demographic characteristics, personality characteristics, and self-presentation; all included studies examined populations sampled from undergraduate and graduate schools.
  • The paper proposes the dual-factor model based on the reviewed literature; no quantitative meta-analysis is described.

Limitations

  • Paper-stated: all included studies examined undergraduate and graduate school samples, limiting generalizability.
  • Paper-stated: no study examined the difference in Facebook use between individualistic and collectivistic cultures; future research is needed to clarify motivations for Facebook use and cultural differences in the self-esteem–Facebook use association.
  • Evident from the text: many included findings are correlational or self-report associations, so causal direction is often unclear; the review is narrative and does not report a quantitative synthesis or effect sizes.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1016/j.paid.2011.11.007

Cites

68 of 68 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 83 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    All 42 included evidence-based studies examined a population sampled from undergraduate and graduate schools.

    “All of these studies examined a population sampled from undergraduate and graduate schools.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Premisecitation

    There are cultural differences among Facebook users in the importance they assign to Facebook features.

    “Vasalou and colleagues (2010) examined difference in FB use across cultures, including the US, UK, Italy, Greece and France found there were cultural differences among users.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Vasalou, Joinson, & Courvoisier, 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Interpretationreasoning

    Facebook use is primarily motivated by two basic social needs: the need to belong and the need for self-presentation.

    “We propose a model suggesting that Facebook use is motivated by two primary needs: (1) The need to belong and (2) the need for self-presentation.”
    • Also stated in: § The Dual-Factor Model of FB Use · plain
      “According to this model, FB use is primarily motivated by two basic social needs: (1) the need to belong, and (2) the need for self-presentation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Findings from the reviewed studies, all of which sampled undergraduate and graduate students, generalize to Facebook users more broadly.
  • Interpretationnone given

    Neuroticism, narcissism, shyness, self-esteem and self-worth contribute to the need for self-presentation.

    “Demographic and cultural factors contribute to the need to belong, whereas neuroticism, narcissism, shyness, self-esteem and self-worth contribute to the need for self presentation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Premisenone given

    To date, no literature review has been conducted that summarizes the existing findings of studies on personality characteristics associated with widespread Facebook use and Facebook's role in self-presentation.

    “However, to date, no literature review has been conducted that summarizes the existing findings of such studies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 7
  • May combine two claims. 28
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The systematic literature search identified 279 records; after removing 12 duplicates and 189 records that did not yield sufficient data, 78 records remained, of which 42 were evidence-based studies on factors contributing to Facebook use.

    “A total of 279 records were identified from these sources. We removed 12 records, due to duplications, and 189 records, because they did not yield sufficient data. Of the 78 records left, only 42 records were evidence-based studies on factors contributing to Facebook use.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Those high on neuroticism reported that the wall was their favorite Facebook component, whereas those low on neuroticism preferred photos.

    “In addition, those high on neuroticism reported that the wall was their favorite FB component, whereas those low on neuroticism preferred photos”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ross, Orr, Sisic, Simmering, & Orr, 2009 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Taken together, the findings point to cultural and sociodemographic differences in Facebook use; specifically, females and ethnic minorities appear to use Facebook more often than males and Caucasians.

    “Taken together, these findings point to cultural and sociodemographic differences in FB use. Specifically, females and ethnic minorities appear to use FB more often than males and Caucasians.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

    Premisecitation

    More women than men used Facebook.

    “and that more women than men used FB.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hargittai, 2008

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    People in collectivist cultures more often rely on social norms to decide whether they should be satisfied and consider the social appraisals of family and friends in evaluating their lives.

    “people in collectivist cultures more often rely on social norms to decide whether they should be satisfied and consider the social appraisals of family and friends in evaluating their lives”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Suh et al., 1998 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Frequent Facebook use is associated with lower academic performance but possibly higher self-esteem and sense of belonging.

    “Frequent FB use is also associated with lower academic performance but possibly higher self-esteem and sense of belonging.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Although the reason for Facebook use had little association with loneliness, Facebook use intensity reduced students' perceived level of loneliness.

    “although the reason for FB use had little association with loneliness, FB use intensity reduced students’ perceived level of loneliness.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lou, 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The review of the literature suggests that a high level of extraversion, low self-esteem, high levels of neuroticism, narcissism, and low levels of self-esteem and self-worth are associated with high Facebook use.

    “In sum, the review of the literature on FB use suggests that a high level of extraversion, low self-esteem, high levels of neuroticism, narcissism, and low levels of self-esteem and self-worth are associated with high FB use.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Self-esteem may act as a sociometer, a monitor of one's acceptability to the group.

    “It has been proposed that self-esteem may act as a sociometer – a monitor of one's acceptability to the group.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Leary, Tambor, Terdal, & Downs, 1995 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Leary, 2007 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A drop in self-esteem serves as a warning signal of potential social exclusion and motivates the individual to take steps to avoid rejection and improve one's standing in the social hierarchy.

    “A drop in self-esteem serves as a warning signal of potential social exclusion and motivates the individual to take steps to avoid rejection and improve one's standing in the social hierarchy”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Leary, Tambor, Terdal, & Downs, 1995 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Leary, 2007 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    People with high levels of narcissism and people with low levels of self-esteem were more likely to spend more than an hour a day on Facebook.

    “people with high level of narcissism and also people with low levels of self-esteem were more likely to spend more than an hour a day on FB.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Mehdizadeh, 2010 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Facebook users reported both a lower mean GPA and fewer hours per week studying than Facebook nonusers.

    “The results showed that FB users reported both a lower mean GPA and fewer hours per week studying than FB nonusers.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kirschner and Karpinski, 2010 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The two motivational factors, the need to belong and the need for self-presentation, can co-exist, but can also each be the single cause for Facebook use.

    “These two motivational factors can co-exist, but can also each be the single cause for FB use.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Facebook use intensity was positively associated with offline friendship, but offline friendship did not have any association with psychosocial self-esteem.

    “FB use intensity was further positively associated with offline friendship, but offline friendship did not have any association with psychosocial self-esteem”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lou, 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Facebook use was beneficial for students' socialization in universities and social learning outcomes.

    “The results showed that FB use was beneficial for students’ socialization in universities and social learning outcomes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Yu, Tian, Vogel, & Kwok, 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Shy individuals spent more time on Facebook and had a more favorable attitude toward Facebook.

    “At the same time, shy individuals spent more time on FB and had a more favorable attitude toward FB”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Orr et al., 2009 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Internet use has been associated with a detrimental effect on psychological measures of well-being such as self-esteem and life satisfaction.

    “In the past, internet use has been associated with a detrimental effect on psychological measures of well being such as self-esteem and life satisfaction (Huang, 2010).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Huang, 2010 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Extraverted individuals reported higher levels of both social networking site use and addictive tendencies.

    “extraverted individuals reported higher levels of both SNS use and addictive tendencies.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wilson, Fornasier, and White, 2010 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Two socialization processes transformed users' engagement with Facebook into learning outcomes: Facebook use facilitated relationship development and acceptance from peers, and Facebook use allowed acculturation to the university.

    “their results revealed the presence of two socialization processes that transformed users’ engagement with FB into learning outcomes. First, FB use facilitated relationship development and acceptance from peers. Second, FB use allowed acculturation to the university.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Yu, Tian, Vogel, & Kwok, 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Social acceptability, as measured by others' liking or conversely by interpersonal conflict, was found to be a causal determinant of self-esteem and vice versa.

    “social acceptability, as measured by others’ liking or conversely by interpersonal conflict, was found to be a causal determinant of self-esteem and vice versa”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Denissen, Penke, Schmitt, & van Aken, 2008 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Srivastava & Beer, 2005

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Improvement in students' learning led them to a higher level of self-esteem, satisfaction with university life, and performance proficiency.

    “Improvement in students’ learning, have led them to a higher level of self-esteem, satisfaction with university life, and performance proficiency.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Yu, Tian, Vogel, & Kwok, 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The intended image was related to whether students posted socially inappropriate information; users who posted inappropriate information felt they portrayed a sexually appealing, wild, or offensive image, while those who did not believed they portrayed a hardworking image.

    “As predicted, the intended image was related to whether students posted socially inappropriate information. Users who posted inappropriate information felt they portrayed an image that was sexually appealing, wild, or offensive. Users who did not post inappropriate information believed they portrayed a hardworking image.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Peluchette & Karl, 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The amount of self-disclosure on FB did not affect how participants perceived the appropriateness of the teacher's use of FB, and the majority of participants viewed teachers' use of FB positively.

    “Interestingly, however, the amount of self-disclosure on the FB website did not appear to affect how participants perceived the appropriateness of the teacher's use of FB, and the majority of participants viewed the teachers’ use of FB positively (Mazer, Murphy, & Simonds, 2007).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Mazer, Murphy, & Simonds, 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The association between self-esteem and Facebook use is complex and possibly moderated by cultural and social factors.

    “The finding from this study suggests that the association between self-esteem and FB use is complex and possibly moderated by cultural and social factors.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Impressions made independently from FB profiles were accurate for all personality traits except emotional stability; for emotional stability, profile authors engaged in self-enhancement.

    “The study found that impressions made independently from FB profiles for all personalities were accurate, with the exception of emotional stability. For the latter, profile authors were found to have engaged in self-enhancement (Gosling, Gaddis, & Vazire, 2007).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gosling, Gaddis, & Vazire, 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The frequency of Facebook use was positively correlated with feelings of general connection in life and also with feelings of general disconnection in life.

    “the frequency of FB use was positively correlated with feelings of general connection in life and also with feelings of general disconnection in life.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sheldon, Abad, & Hirsch, 2011

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Observers were able to accurately infer the personality characteristics of FB users, suggesting that participants were expressing and communicating real personality rather than promoting idealized versions of themselves.

    “Observers were able to accurately infer the personality characteristics of the FB users in the study, suggesting that participants were expressing and communicating real personality rather than promoting idealized versions of themselves (Back et al., 2010).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Back et al., 2010 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The number of FB friends and positive self-presentation on FB both have a positive association with subjective well-being.

    “Results showed that both factors had a positive association with subjective well being number.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kim & Lee, 2011

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Not using Facebook for 48 hours caused a reduction in connection but not in disconnection during this period.

    “not using FB for 48 hr caused a reduction in connection but not in disconnection during this period”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sheldon, Abad, & Hirsch, 2011

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The two basic social needs (need to belong and need for self-presentation) can act independently.

    “These needs can act independently and are influenced by a host of other factors, including the cultural background, sociodemographic variables, and personality traits, such as introversion, extraversion, shyness, narcissism, neuroticism, self-esteem, and self-worth.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The two basic social needs are influenced by a host of other factors, including cultural background, sociodemographic variables, and personality traits such as introversion, extraversion, shyness, narcissism, neuroticism, self-esteem, and self-worth.

    “These needs can act independently and are influenced by a host of other factors, including the cultural background, sociodemographic variables, and personality traits, such as introversion, extraversion, shyness, narcissism, neuroticism, self-esteem, and self-worth.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    FB profiles may reflect users' public persona, which appears to be shaped and motivated by the need for self-presentation.

    “Taken together, the studies suggest that FB profiles may reflect the users’ public persona, which appears to be shaped and motivated by the need for self-presentation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    General disconnection seems to motivate Facebook use, whereas being connected appears to reward it.

    “There is evidence to suggest that general disconnection seems to motivate FB use, whereas being connected appears to reward it (Sheldon, Abad, & Hirsch, 2011).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sheldon, Abad, & Hirsch, 2011

      Not checked in the free run.

33 of 33

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Findings from the reviewed studies, all of which sampled undergraduate and graduate students, generalize to Facebook users more broadly.

    “All of these studies examined a population sampled from undergraduate and graduate schools.”
1 of 1

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • The review's sampling claim conflicts with an adolescent study

    Major

    The paper says all 42 included studies sampled undergraduate or graduate schools, but it describes one included study as assessing adolescents aged 12-18.

  • Self-esteem is called a disclosure factor despite the cited study's result

    Minor

    The paragraph presents self-esteem as a factor in Facebook information disclosure, then says the study found only tendency to disclose and need for popularity were significant predictors.

2 of 2

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 1

  1. Lou, 2010, Loneliness, friendship, and self-esteem: First-year college students’ experience of using facebook, Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 70, 7902

Cited by

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Related

Authors
Nadkarni, A., & Hofmann, S. G.
Affiliations
  • Boston Medical Center (US)
  • Boston University (US)
Corresponding author
Hofmann, Stefan G.
ORCID
Venue
Personality and Individual Differences
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2012-02
Volume
52
Issue
3
Pages
243-249
ISSN
0191-8869 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.paid.2011.11.007
PMC
PMC3335399
OpenAlex
W1969262065
Semantic Scholar
cfe480d33e3657c9418f7662aa947f7774294ae6
Cited by
1,276
References
68
Citations by year
2026: 48 · 2025: 54 · 2024: 60 · 2023: 82 · 2022: 92 · 2021: 119 · 2020: 110 · 2019: 111 · 2018: 110 · 2017: 136 · 2016: 117 · 2015: 110 · 2014: 71 · 2013: 42 · 2012: 13
FWCI
135.00
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations
  • Personality and Individual Differences (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders
National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH078308)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Networks and Communications › Media and Digital Communication
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Keywords
Facebook, social networking sites, need to belong, self-presentation, personality traits, neuroticism, narcissism, shyness, self-esteem, self-worth, demographic factors, cultural factors, motivations for social media use

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