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Cited by 179Impact of Technology on AdolescentsDigital Media and PhilosophyPersonal Information Management and User Behavior

Carpe diem instead of losing your social mind: Beyond digital addiction and why we all suffer from digital overuse

Open access
Montag, Christian, Walla, Peter·2016·Cogent Psychology
DOI 10.1080/23311908.2016.1157281
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Abstract

It is not too late, but about time to realize how damaging IT overuse can be. The present paper discusses why it is of tremendous importance to study the effect of the Internet, smartphone, and other new digital technologies on individuals’ productivity and well-being. Besides its recognized addictive nature, it also becomes clear that such technology inevitably alters our natural social lives, which has, in our opinion, the potential to harm entire societies. In developed countries, we are more or less all using digital devices for communication purposes; we surf the Internet and we download apps on a daily basis. We present two lines of argument as to why the study of technological (over)use and its consequences is of tremendous importance. First, we outline under which circumstances use of smartphones and Internet can make us unproductive. Second, we anchor the (over)use of technologies in an affective neuroscience framework. Both these approaches to describing and understanding the consequences of digital technology use clearly show that many humans are already “overusing” technology. Therefore, we also provide some initial ideas on how to cut down technology use in order to live more satisfying and happier lives. Let us look into each other’s eyes and begin to spend more quality time with our loved ones outside in nature instead of staring at digital devices.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

The paper argues that digital technology overuse harms productivity and well-being beyond diagnosable addiction, proposing an inverted-U relationship between smartphone/Internet use and productivity and an affective-neuroscience account of unmet primary emotional needs. It concludes with practical suggestions to reduce smartphone and Internet use.

Key findings

  • Smartphone/Internet use may relate to productivity as an inverted U: the right amount makes us more productive, but overuse begins when we are distracted minute-to-minute; constant interruptions are proposed to cause the greatest productivity loss, rather than total time spent on the phone.
  • In a large-scale smartphone investigation, more than 2,400 participants were tracked for four weeks; the average user spent >160 min every day on the smartphone, with WhatsApp (about 20% of this time) and Facebook (about 10%) as major drivers.
  • In a survey of N = 3,084 participants, 11.10% stated they “often” or “very often” only wanted to check the time but then got carried away by something else on the smartphone; about 36–40% of smartphone owners (81% owned such a device) reported using the smartphone in the last 5 min before bed and/or the first 5 min after waking, and only 45% reported wearing a wristwatch.
  • From an affective neuroscience perspective, digital interactions are argued to be insufficient to nourish ancient emotional systems (SEEK, LUST, CARE, PLAY; FEAR, SADNESS, RAGE), potentially atrophying the social mind; overuse has been linked to ADHD, anxiety, and technostress, though causal direction is unclear.

Methods

  • Design: a short opinion piece/review that builds a theoretical framework around two lines of argument—productivity and affective neuroscience—and offers initial ideas for cutting down technology use.
  • Data/sample: no new primary sample; it summarizes existing literature and the authors’ own observations, including a large-scale smartphone investigation (>2,400 participants, four weeks) and a survey with N = 3,084.
  • Main analysis: narrative synthesis and conceptual argument; no formal statistical analysis is reported.

Limitations

  • Stated: some of the authors’ thoughts need to be backed up by further empirical evidence in the future; most studies in the field are correlational, so it is not clear whether anxiety is the cause or the result of technology overuse; more research is needed to adjust advice to different organizational environments.
  • Evident: as an opinion/review piece, it does not conduct a systematic search or test the proposed inverted-U and social-atrophy mechanisms; these remain hypotheses rather than demonstrated outcomes.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1080/23311908.2016.1157281

Cites

51 of 51 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 33 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Premisecitation
    § 3. Productivity and use of the Internet/smartphone

    Answering emails at a few time points reduces stress and heightens well-being compared to answering them whenever you like.

    “This study demonstrated that answering your mails at a few time points (in contrast to answering them whenever you like) reduces stress and heightens well-being.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kushlev and Dunn (Citation2015)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Interpretationreasoning
    § Abstract

    Many humans are already overusing technology.

    “Both these approaches to describing and understanding the consequences of digital technology use clearly show that many humans are already “overusing” technology.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Interpretationcitation
    § 3. Productivity and use of the Internet/smartphone

    A state of deep concentration characterized by flow cannot be reached when we are constantly getting distracted.

    “A state of deep concentration characterized by positive emotions accompanying flow (Csikszentmihalyi & LeFevre, Citation1989) cannot be reached when we are constantly getting distracted.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Csikszentmihalyi & LeFevre, Citation1989

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Interpretationcitation
    § 3. Productivity and use of the Internet/smartphone

    Much of the time spent on smartphone is not actually needed but is wasted.

    “Clearly, much of the time spent on smartphone is not actually needed but is wasted.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Premisecitation
    § 2. Technological addictions and beyond

    Measures of smartphone addiction and generalized Internet addiction only overlap in part.

    “measures of smartphone addiction and generalized Internet addiction only overlap in part (Kwon, Kim, Cho, & Yang, Citation2013b; Kwon et al., Citation2013a).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Kwon, Kim, Cho, & Yang, Citation2013b

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Kwon et al., Citation2013a

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 14
  • May combine two claims. 14

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § 3. Productivity and use of the Internet/smartphone

    Constant interruptions lead to greatest productivity loss, rather than total time spent on the phone.

    “we believe that constant interruptions lead to greatest productivity loss, rather than the total time spent on the phone.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given
    § Abstract

    Digital technology inevitably alters our natural social lives.

    “Besides its recognized addictive nature, it also becomes clear that such technology inevitably alters our natural social lives”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § 3. Productivity and use of the Internet/smartphone

    The average user spent more than 160 minutes every day on the smartphone, with WhatsApp and Facebook as major driving forces.

    “The average user spent >160 min every day on the smartphone with WhatsApp (about 20% of this time) and Facebook (about 10%) applications as the major driving forces”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Montag et al., Citation2015a

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given
    § 1. Background and observations from everyday life

    Due to smartphones and Internet, we stop communicating with our directly available environment and stop experiencing the current moment.

    “Due to smartphones and Internet, we stop communicating with our directly available environment and we stop experiencing the current moment.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Abstract

    IT overuse can be damaging.

    “It is not too late, but about time to realize how damaging IT overuse can be.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § 2. Technological addictions and beyond

    Internet Gaming Disorder represents a specific form of Internet addiction and is only in part correlated with generalized Internet addiction.

    “Internet Gaming Disorder represents a specific form of Internet addiction and is only in part correlated with the more generalized form of Internet addiction (Montag et al., Citation2015).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Montag et al., Citation2015

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § 3. Productivity and use of the Internet/smartphone

    The association between smartphone usage and productivity might resemble an inverted U-function.

    “Montag (Citation2015) recently outlined in a German publication that the association between smartphone usage and productivity might resemble an inverted U-function.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Montag (Citation2015)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given
    § 2. Technological addictions and beyond

    We are all suffering more or less from daily digital human machine interaction at some level.

    “Independent of a focus on addictive behaviors in the context of smartphone and Internet usage, we are all suffering more or less from the daily digital human machine interaction at some level.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given
    § 1. Background and observations from everyday life

    Our social lives suffer significantly due to technology, damaging the "inherently human" part of us.

    “Even worse is the fact that our social lives suffer significantly, ultimately damaging that part of us which is “inherently human.””
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § 6. Conclusions

    Spare time where minds can wander is needed because that is where we can get creative.

    “We all need some spare time, where our minds can wander because this is where we can get creative (Baird et al., Citation 2012 ).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Baird et al., Citation 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § 5. Atrophy of the social mind due to overuse of digital communication devices

    We gradually might be about to lose those capacities and the ability to comprehend and detect emotions.

    “As mentioned above, we gradually might be about to lose those capacities and thus also lose the ability to comprehend and even detect emotions, our own and somebody else’s.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given
    § 6. Conclusions

    Internet and/or smartphone addiction cannot yet be diagnosed, but overuse is very prevalent in today's society.

    “Although Internet and/or smartphone addiction cannot yet be diagnosed, this overuse is very prevalent in today’s society.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § 5. Atrophy of the social mind due to overuse of digital communication devices

    We are not training our social abilities by using IT, and are depriving ourselves of several kinds of communication levels.

    “As a consequence, we are not training our social abilities such as reading emotions from vivid (and moving) faces or listening to the sound of the giggling of the interacting partner. We are depriving ourselves of several kinds of communication levels by this kind of IT use.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § 5. Atrophy of the social mind due to overuse of digital communication devices

    Genuine emotion recognition depends on reading faces, postures, gestures, speech melody, and other non-verbal information, and emoticons are not adequate alternatives.

    “Genuine emotion recognition depends on all those reads, while smilies and smugglies (or other emoticons) are no better than a “nice try” as alternatives to true emotions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § 6. Conclusions

    Humans can get into a flow when playing computer games or dealing with other technological devices.

    “An interesting finding shows that humans also can get into a flow when playing computer games or dealing with other technological devices (e.g. Mauri, Cipresso, Balgera, Villamira, & Riva, Citation2011; Weibel, Wissmath, Habegger, Steiner, & Groner, Citation2008).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Mauri, Cipresso, Balgera, Villamira, & Riva, Citation2011

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Weibel, Wissmath, Habegger, Steiner, & Groner, Citation2008

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § 6. Conclusions

    People spend lots of time in bars or other places to meet and communicate because of the intrinsic need for social interaction.

    “That is also one of the reasons why people spend lots of time in bars or other places to meet and communicate.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Humans have an intrinsic need for social interaction.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § 6. Conclusions

    Overuse of smartphones is associated with poor sleep and less work engagement the next day at work.

    “Overuse of smartphones is also associated with poor sleep and less work engagement the next day at work (Lanaj et al., Citation 2014 ).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lanaj et al., Citation 2014

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § 6. Conclusions

    Digital technology is overused, which causes serious and most often underestimated or neglected problems.

    “Both the section regarding productivity and that focused on well-being provided evidence that digital technology is overused, which causes serious and most often underestimated or even neglected problems.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisereasoning
    § 5. Atrophy of the social mind due to overuse of digital communication devices

    As a consequence of social life style, emotion-related capacities evolved.

    “As a consequence of a social life style, a number of emotion-related capacities, such as reading expressions in someone’s face and listening to varying affective speech melody while being actively engaged in direct communication with a conspecific, evolved.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § 6. Conclusions

    Less checking of emails (or checking at stable times) is associated with less stress and more well-being.

    “Moreover, less checking on mails (or at stable times) is associated with less stress and more well-being (Kushlev & Dunn, Citation 2015 ).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kushlev & Dunn, Citation 2015

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisereasoning
    § 5. Atrophy of the social mind due to overuse of digital communication devices

    Social living style made humans what they are today.

    “it has been to a large extent the social living style that made humans what we are today.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § 4. Well-being and technological (over) use: An affective neuroscience perspective

    Digital devices cannot sufficiently nourish our brain circuitry.

    “We fear that although some of these basic needs can in part be fulfilled using technological devices (surfing the Internet—exploring hence SEEK), chatting with a person via WhatsApp (CARE, belonging), playing a game on a smartphone with another person (PLAY), our brain circuitry will not be nourished sufficiently.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § 4. Well-being and technological (over) use: An affective neuroscience perspective

    Imbalances in these brain circuits go along with psychopathologies; depression is characterized by low SEEK activity and high SADNESS activity.

    “Imbalances in these brain circuits go along with psychopathologies, e.g. a state of depression is characterized by low activity in the SEEK system and high activity in the SADNESS circuitry.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Panksepp

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § 4. Well-being and technological (over) use: An affective neuroscience perspective

    Most studies in the field are correlational, so it is unclear whether anxiety causes or results from technology overuse.

    “As most studies are correlational in the field, it is not clear if anxiety is the cause or the result of technology overuse.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
24 of 24

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Social capacities atrophy if they are not used, analogous to muscles.

    “Use it or lose it! Do not use your muscles for only one week and you’ll see the result.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Humans have an intrinsic need for social interaction.

    “Humans have an intrinsic need for social interaction.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Persons trying to concentrate on a computer game suffer a loss of flow experience when constantly interrupted while playing the game.

    “Moreover, persons trying to concentrate on a computer game will also suffer from a loss of flow experience, when being constantly interrupted while playing the game.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The implementation of advice to check emails less depends on the organizational structure a person works in.

    “The implementation of this advice clearly depends on the organizational structure a person works in.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    If you do not close your mail program and shut down your smartphone when you need to write something, you will be constantly distracted by incoming messages and never enter a state of flow.

    “Otherwise, you will be constantly distracted by incoming messages and never enter a state of flow.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    If you answer all your emails immediately, your work flow will be fragmented.

    “Otherwise, your work flow will be fragmented.”
6 of 6

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • The term 'Internet addiction' or 'smartphone addiction' is not used consistently in the literature.

    “The term ‘Internet addiction’ or ‘smartphone addiction’ is not used consistently in the literature. A review shows the use of different expressions; there is, for instance, ‘digital addiction’ [25], ‘problematic Internet use’ [26], or ‘Internet-use disorder’ [27].”

    From Problematic Use of the Internet and Smartphones in University Students: 2006–2017 (2018) · cites this paper as [25]

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

4 of the 55 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 12

  1. Darwin C., 1859, Die Abstammung des Menschen (Voll illustrierte und biographisch kommentierte Gesamtausgabe)
  2. Hardie E., 2007, Australian Journal of Emerging Technologies & Society, 5, 34
  3. Montag C., 2015, Wirtschaftspsychologie Aktuell, 2, 19
  4. 10.1111/appy.2015.7.issue-1 · DOI
  5. 10.1007/978-3-319-07242-5 · DOI
  6. 10.1111/cdir.1998.7.issue-3 · DOI
  7. Panksepp J., 2007, Journal of the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 16, 57
  8. 10.1145/2436239 · DOI
  9. Sariyska R., 2015, Journal of Addiction Research & Therap, 6, 2
  10. 10.1111/add.2010.105.issue-3 · DOI
  11. Walla P., 2010, Verrückt was unser Gehirn alles kann, selbst wenn es versagt
  12. 10.1111/pcn.2004.58.issue-5 · DOI

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Montag, C., & Walla, P.
Affiliations
  • Universität Ulm (DE)
  • University of Vienna (AT)
Corresponding author
Montag, Christian
ORCID
Venue
Cogent Psychology
Publisher
Informa UK Limited
Published
2016-03-21
Volume
3
Issue
1
Pages
1157281
ISSN
2331-1908 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1080/23311908.2016.1157281
OpenAlex
W2289070970
Semantic Scholar
89af9d3a03b74c557f15fe9454797da31fd65541
Cited by
179
References
55
Citations by year
2026: 40 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 21 · 2019: 16 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 2 · 2015: 4
FWCI
31.45
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Cogent Psychology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
  • NOVA (University of Newcastle Australia) (submittedVersion)
Funders
Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (MO2363/3-1)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Science Applications › Digital Media and Philosophy
  • Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Information Systems and Management › Personal Information Management and User Behavior
Keywords
digital overuse, digital addiction, smartphone use, internet use, technology overuse, productivity, well-being, affective neuroscience, social life

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