Atmospheric nitrogen when life evolved on Earth
Abstract
The amount of nitrogen (N 2 ) present in the atmosphere when life evolved on our planet is central for understanding the production of prebiotic molecules and, hence, is a fundamental quantity to constrain. Estimates of atmospheric molecular nitrogen partial surface pressures during the Archean, however, widely vary in the literature. In this study, we apply a model that combines newly gained insights into atmospheric escape, magma ocean duration, and outgassing evolution. Results suggest <420 mbar surface molecular nitrogen at the time when life originated, which is much lower compared with estimates in previous works and hence could impact our understanding of the production rate of prebiotic molecules such as hydrogen cyanide. Our revised values provide new input for atmospheric chamber experiments that simulate prebiotic chemistry on the early Earth. Our results that assume negligible nitrogen escape rates are in agreement with research based on solidified gas bubbles and the oxidation of iron in micrometeorites at 2.7 Gyr ago, which suggest that the atmospheric pressure was probably less than half the present-day value. Our results contradict previous studies that assume N 2 partial surface pressures during the Archean were higher than those observed today and suggest that, if the N 2 partial pressure were low in the Archean, it would likely be low in the Hadean as well. Furthermore, our results imply a biogenic nitrogen fixation rate from 9 to 14 Teragram N 2 per year (Tg N 2 /year), which is consistent with modern marine biofixation rates and, hence, indicate an oceanic origin of this fixation process.
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The “Water Problem”(sic), the Illusory Pond and Life’s Submarine Emergence—A Review
Russell, M. J. (2021) · Life · doi:10.3390/life11050429 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Impact of space weather on climate and habitability of terrestrial-type exoplanets
Airapetian, V., Gopalswamy, N., Grenfell, J. L., Gronoff, G., Güdel, M., Herbst, K., Henning, W. G., Jackman, C. H., Jin, M., Johnstone, C. P., et al. (2020) · Yokohama National University Repository (Yokohama National University) · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Optimizing Nitrogen Fixation and Recycling for Food Production in Regenerative Life Support Systems
Langenfeld, N. J., Kusuma, P., Wallentine, T., Criddle, C. S., Seefeldt, L. C., & Bugbee, B. G. (2021) · Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Sciences · doi:10.3389/fspas.2021.699688 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Yuan, Y., Shi, Y., Liu, Z., Fan, Y., Liu, M., Ningjing, M., & Li, Y. (2023) · Microorganisms · doi:10.3390/microorganisms11112654 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Lammer, H., Scherf, M., Itō, Y., Mura, A., Vorburger, A., Guenther, E. W., Wurz, P., Erkaev, N. V., & Odert, P. (2022) · Space Science Reviews · doi:10.1007/s11214-022-00876-5 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Habitable Zone and Atmosphere Retention Distance (HaZARD)
Looveren, G. V., Saikia, S. B., Herbort, O., Schleich, S., Güdel, M., Johnstone, C. P., & Kislyakova, K. G. (2025) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202452998 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Space plasma physics science opportunities for the lunar orbital platform - Gateway
Dandouras, I., Taylor, M. G. G. T., Keyser, J. D., Futaana, Y., Bamford, R., Branduardi-Raymont, G., Chaufray, J., Constantinescu, D., Angelis, E. D., Devoto, P., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Sciences · doi:10.3389/fspas.2023.1120302 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Evolution of Earth's oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon polar outflow in the Archean eon
Grasser, N., Kislyakova, K. G., Scherf, M., Lammer, H., & Looveren, G. V. (2023) · Earth and Planetary Science Letters · doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2023.118442 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Eta-Earth Revisited I: A Formula for Estimating the Maximum Number of Earth-Like Habitats
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Geoscience for Understanding Habitability in the Solar System and Beyond
Dehant, V., Debaille, V., Dobos, V., Gaillard, F., & Gillmann, C. (2019) · Repository of the Academy's Library (Library of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences) · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Multiverse Predictions for Habitability: Planetary Characteristics
Sandora, M., Airapetian, V., Barnes, L., & Lewis, G. (2022) · Universe · doi:10.3390/universe9010002 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
High-energy particle observations from the Moon
Dandouras, I., & Roussos, E. (2024) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences · doi:10.1098/rsta.2023.0311 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Multiverse Predictions for Habitability: Origin of Life Scenarios
Sandora, M., Airapetian, V., Barnes, L. A., Lewis, G. F., & Pérez‐Rodríguez, I. (2023) · Universe · doi:10.3390/universe9010042 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Su, G., Avice, G., Vayrac, F., & Mélis, R. (2026) · Earth and Planetary Science Letters · doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2026.120135 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Precambrian evolution of the nitrogen cycle
Johnson, B., & Stüeken, E. E. (2023) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-99762-1.00026-7 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Solar System/Exoplanet Science Synergies in a multidecadal perspective
Rauer, H., Blanc, M., Venturini, J., Dehant, V., Demory, B.-O., Dorn, C., Domagal-Goldman, S. D., Foing, B. H., Gaudi, B. S., Helled, R., et al. (2022) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-90226-7.00001-5
- Authors
- Gebauer, S., Grenfell, J. L., Lammer, H., de Vera, J.-P. P., Sproß, L., Airapetian, V. S., Sinnhuber, M., & Rauer, H.
- Affiliations
- Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e. V. (DLR) (DE)
- Austrian Academy of Sciences (AT)
- Institute for Planetary Research (PF), German Aerospace Centre (DLR), Berlin, Germany.
- Goddard Space Flight Center (US)
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Gebauer, Stefanie
- ORCID
- Venue
- Astrobiology
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2020-12
- Volume
- 20
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 1413-1426
- ISSN
- 1531-1074 (ISSN-L)
- 1557-8070
- OpenAlex
- W3097152008
- Cited by
- 17
- References
- 105
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 1 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 1 · 2019: 1
- FWCI
- 1.34
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Astrobiology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- elib (German Aerospace Center) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Origins and Evolution of Life
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Paleontology › Paleontology and Stratigraphy of Fossils
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astro and Planetary Science
- Keywords
- atmospheric nitrogen, Archean atmosphere, early Earth, prebiotic chemistry, hydrogen cyanide, atmospheric escape, magma ocean, outgassing, atmospheric pressure, micrometeorites
- MeSH terms
- Origin of Life, Atmosphere, Nitrogen, Oxidation-Reduction, Earth, Planet
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