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Moral Machines
Abstract
The human‐built environment is increasingly being populated by artificial agents that, through artificial intelligence (AI), are capable of acting autonomously. The software controlling these autonomous systems is, to‐date, “ethically blind” in the sense that the decision‐making capabilities of such systems does not involve any explicit moral reasoning. The title Moral Machines: Teaching Robots Right from Wrong refers to the need for these increasingly autonomous systems (robots and software bots) to become capable of factoring ethical and moral considerations into their decision making. The new field of inquiry directed at the development of artificial moral agents is referred to by a number of names including machine morality, machine ethics, roboethics, or artificial morality. Engineers exploring design strategies for systems sensitive to moral considerations in their choices and actions will need to determine what role ethical theory should play in defining control architectures for such systems.
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“Several expert committees have been created to this end, such as the High-Level Expert Group on Artificial Intelligence appointed by the European Commission, the Expert Group on AI in Society of the OECD, and the Select Committee on Artificial Intelligence of the UK's House of Lords.153”
From Artificial Intelligence and Sustainable Decisions (2023) · cites this paper as [153]
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Items 101–200 of 719
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“Similarly, Wallach and Allen [39] embrace the idea to connect virtues to the process of building moral expertise based on interaction with the environment.”
BackgroundInfluentialThe synthetization of human voices
Bendel, O. (2017) · Ai & Society · doi:10.1007/s00146-017-0748-x · Cited by 24
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Cremer, D. D., & Narayanan, D. (2023) · Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.3389/frai.2023.1093712 · Cited by 64
“3 Contemporary approaches to “embed” ethics in AI systems—by incorporating existing ethical rules and principles as design constraints—are representative of this tendency (cf. Wallach and Allen, 2009; Conitzer et al., 2017; McLennan et al., 2020).”
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Steels, L., & de Mántaras, R. L. (2018) · AI Communications · doi:10.3233/aic-180607 · Cited by 48
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“For a discussion about the need to merge the cognitive top-down with the bottom-up approach, see Wallach and Allen 2009.”
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Tonkens, R. (2012) · Ethics and Information Technology · doi:10.1007/s10676-012-9290-1 · Cited by 47
“12 Some of the moral frameworks that have been examined with respect to their computability include Rossian prima facie duties (Anderson and Anderson 2007b), Utilitarianism (Grau 2006), Kantian moral theory (e.g. Powers 2006), and virtue ethics (Wallach and Allen 2009).”
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Bauer, W. A. (2018) · AI & Society · doi:10.1007/s00146-018-0871-3 · Cited by 42
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Bendel, O. (2023) · Ai & Society · doi:10.1007/s00146-023-01780-4 · Cited by 38
“The subject matter of machine ethics is the morality of machines, mostly that of partially autonomous and autonomous systems such as chatbots, voice assistants, certain robots, certain drones, and self-driving cars (Wallach and Allen 2009; Anderson and Anderson 2011; Bendel 2012a, 2019a).”
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Tzafestaş, S. G. (2018) · Information · doi:10.3390/info9060148 · Cited by 41
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“Similarly, Wallach and Allen (2009) introduced a diagram by which three classes of moral agency (operational morality, functional morality, and full moral agency) are distributed on a scale indicating progressive degrees of moral sensitivity and autonomy.”
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Hagendorff, T., & Danks, D. (2023) · AI and Ethics · doi:10.1007/s43681-022-00188-y · Cited by 36
“In their seminal book “Moral Machines” [1], Wallach and Allen differentiated between three levels of moral agency in artificial moral agents.”
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Sharkey, A. (2017) · Connection Science · doi:10.1080/09540091.2017.1313815 · Cited by 36
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BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationTowards Establishing Criteria for the Ethical Analysis of Artificial Intelligence
Farisco, M., Evers, K., & Salles, A. L. F. (2020) · Science and Engineering Ethics · doi:10.1007/s11948-020-00238-w · Cited by 44
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“Defenders of this kind of top-down approach (Etzioni and Etzioni, 2017), such as Wallach and Allen (2009), support that ethical choices would be guided by the moral philosophies implanted into the system.”
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Torrance, S. (2012) · AI & Society · doi:10.1007/s00146-012-0422-2 · Cited by 35
“(Wallach and Allen 2009: 199) But should we then blame them if they choose wrongly?”
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Totschnig, W. (2017) · AI & Society · doi:10.1007/s00146-017-0753-0 · Cited by 34
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“In Moral Machines: Teaching Robots Right from Wrong (2009), Wendell Wallach and Colin Allen state that those beings are moral agents that are in situations that require moral judgement.”
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Tavani, H. T. (2014) · Philosophy & Technology · doi:10.1007/s13347-014-0165-8 · Cited by 35
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Malhotra, C., Kotwal, V., & Dalal, S. (2018) · doi:10.23919/itu-wt.2018.8597767 · Cited by 34
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Robot Responsibility and Moral Community
Gogoshin, D. L. (2021) · Frontiers in Robotics and AI · doi:10.3389/frobt.2021.768092 · Cited by 41
“First, robots could be equipped with a primitive reinforcement learning architecture whereby our negative reactions would serve to prevent their negative behaviors in the future (Gogoshin, 2020; Tigard, 2021; see Wallach and Allen, 2009 for an example).”
BackgroundSoftware Agents, Anticipatory Ethics, and Accountability
Johnson, D. G. (2011) · The International library of ethics, law and technology · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-1356-7_5 · Cited by 34
“Although Wallach and Allen (2009) do not explicitly make this argument in Moral Machines , they implicitly adopt the strategy; they predict that in the short term “product safety laws will continue to be stretched to deal with artificial agents” and that dangerous practices will be dealt with first…”
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Powers, T. M. (2013) · Topoi · doi:10.1007/s11245-012-9149-4 · Cited by 34
“Wallach and Allen (2009) also forego any necessary attribution of consciousness to computer moral agents, but do so for pragmatic reasons.”
BackgroundDigital dilemmas: Values, ethics and information technology
Kernaghan, K. (2014) · Canadian Public Administration · doi:10.1111/capa.12069 · Cited by 35
Cheon, E., & Su, N. M. (2017) · ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW) · doi:10.1145/2998181.2998329 · Cited by 29
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BackgroundSiegel, J. E., & Παππάς, Γ. (2021) · AI & Society · doi:10.1007/s00146-021-01277-y · Cited by 27
Should We Prevent Optimific Wrongs?
Mogensen, A. L. (2015) · Utilitas · doi:10.1017/s0953820815000345 · Cited by 26
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“Personhood and AI: Why large language models don’t understand us”
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“Acting for the sake of norms, as opposed to merely conforming to them, requires autonomy (Wallach and Allen 2009; Montemayor 2023).”
Wallach, W., & Allen, C. (2012) · Ethics and Information Technology · doi:10.1007/s10676-012-9303-0 · Cited by 27
“Some authors have proposed that robots may eventually be capable of making moral decisions (Gips 1991; Wallach and Allen 2009) or following the laws of war and rules of engagement (Arkin 2009).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationPerspectives about artificial moral agents
Martinho, A., Poulsen, A., Kroesen, M., & Chorus, C. (2021) · AI and Ethics · doi:10.1007/s43681-021-00055-2 · Cited by 27
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Lucas, G. R., Jr. (2011) · Journal of Military Ethics · doi:10.1080/15027570.2011.639164 · Cited by 25
Machine Ethics and the Idea of a More-Than-Human Moral World
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Musiał, M. (2017) · Journal of Experimental & Theoretical Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1080/0952813x.2017.1309691 · Cited by 24
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The ethics of robotic caregivers
Etzioni, A., & Etzioni, O. (2017) · Interaction Studies Social Behaviour and Communication in Biological and Artificial Systems · doi:10.1075/is.18.2.02etz · Cited by 24
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Long-term effect of the absence of a companion robot on older adults: A preliminary pilot study
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Ethical Decision-Making in Artificial Intelligence: A Logic Programming Approach
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“Wallach and Allen [20] profess an interest in the incremental steps arising from present technologies that suggest a need for ethical decisionmaking capabilities and explore the prospects for a bottomup approach to building an artificial moral agent (AMA) that has many of the features of an incrementalist approach.”
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“This example shows the danger of not anticipating that machine learning applications can be manipulated by adversarial inputs or not anticipating to equip those applications with meta rules, meaning that programmers define boundaries, software agents are not allowed to overstep (Wallach and Allen 2009).”
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Kuipers, B. J. (2022) · Frontiers in Robotics and AI · doi:10.3389/frobt.2022.676767 · Cited by 24
“Early contributions (Anderson and Anderson, 2006; Wallach and Allen, 2009; Lin et al., 2012) drew heavily on the major schools of thought in philosophical ethics.”
BackgroundCasuist BDI-Agent: A New Extended BDI Architecture with the Capability of Ethical Reasoning
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Sex Robots from the Perspective of Machine Ethics
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Metadata
- Authors
- Wallach, W., & Allen, C.
- Venue
- Oxford University Press
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press
- Published
- 2009-02-01
- OpenAlex
- W4247462173
- Cited by
- 711
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 70 · 2025: 60 · 2024: 99 · 2023: 47 · 2022: 48 · 2021: 56 · 2020: 47 · 2019: 52 · 2018: 58 · 2017: 34 · 2016: 24 · 2015: 23 · 2014: 27 · 2013: 17 · 2012: 14
- FWCI
- 22.38
- Type
- book
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Oxford University Press eBooks (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Ethics and Social Impacts of AI
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Philosophy › Philosophical Ethics and Theory
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management › Ethics in Business and Education
- Keywords
- machine ethics, artificial morality, robot ethics, autonomous systems, ethical decision-making, control architecture, moral theory, robots, bots
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Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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