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Timing of Food Intake: Identifying Contributing Factors to Design Effective Interventions
Open accessAbstract
Observations that mistimed food intake may have adverse metabolic health effects have generated interest in personalizing food timing recommendations in interventional studies and public health strategies for the purpose of disease prevention and improving overall health. Small, controlled, and short-termed intervention studies suggest that food timing may be modified as it is presumed to be primarily regulated by choice. Identifying and evaluating social and biological factors that explain variability in food timing may determine whether changes in food timing in uncontrolled, free-living environments are sustainable in the long term, and may facilitate design of successful food timing-based interventions. Based on a comprehensive literature search, we summarize 1) cultural and environmental factors; 2) behavioral and personal preference factors; and 3) physiological factors that influence the time when people consume foods. Furthermore, we 1) highlight vulnerable populations who have been identified in experimental and epidemiological studies to be at risk of mistimed food intake and thus necessitating intervention; 2) identify currently used food timing assessment tools and their limitations; and 3) indicate other important considerations for the design of food timing interventions based on successful strategies that address timing of other lifestyle behaviors. Conclusions drawn from this overview may help design practical food timing interventions, develop feasible public health programs, and establish guidelines for effective lifestyle recommendations for prevention and treatment of adverse health outcomes attributed to mistimed food intake.
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“Next to the circadian system and BMI, sex difference plays a crucial role in metabolic regulation (80).”
From Meal timing and its role in obesity and associated diseases (2024) · cites this paper as [80]
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Azzimani, K., Bihri, H., Dahmi, A., Azzouzi, S., & Charaf, M. E. H. (2022) · IEEE International Conference on Electronics, Control, Optimization and Computer Science (ICECOCS) · doi:10.1109/icecocs55148.2022.9983099 · Cited by 13
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“Sex differences in chronotype may also be involved, as men usually present a later chronotype (78).”
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“This is also in line with Larson et al. (2013), where the frequency of communal meals correlated with better dietary patterns among adults, highlighting the role of social dynamics in meal timing (Dashti et al., 2019).”
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Sleep Variability, Eating Timing Variability, and Carotid Intima‐Media Thickness in Early Adulthood
Hoopes, E. K., Witman, M. A., D’Agata, M. N., Brewer, B. C., Edwards, D. G., Robson, S. M., Malone, S. K., Keiser, T., & Patterson, F. (2023) · Journal of the American Heart Association · doi:10.1161/jaha.123.029662 · Cited by 6
Rahkola, J., Lehtimäki, A.-V., Abdollahi, A. M., Merikanto, I., Vepsäläinen, H., Björkqvist, J., Roos, E., Erkkola, M., & Lehto, R. (2023) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114523002350 · Cited by 6
“These confounding factors were chosen based on previous literature: factors used in studies similar to this one (13,14,17,18,46) or associated with the exposures and outcomes of this study (35,47,48) .”
MethodMazri, F. H., Manaf, Z. A., Shahar, S., Ludin, A. F. M., & Karim, N. A. (2023) · Chronobiology International · doi:10.1080/07420528.2023.2165092 · Cited by 6
“…research did not describe the chronotypes (Jakubowicz et al. 2013; Madjd et al. 2016) and participant’s work schedule (Hatanaka et al. 2022) which are the crucial determinants of food timing that can affect the adherence and successfulness of meal timing intervention (Dashti et al. 2019).”
BackgroundThe diversity and consistency of what and when people eat
Tran, T., Manoogian, E. N. C., Hou, Z. J., Varshney, S., Sui, J., Laing, K. L., Fleischer, J., & Panda, S. (2026) · Nature Metabolism · doi:10.1038/s42255-026-01504-0 · Cited by 5
“In NHANES, time-of-day data are used as memory aids rather than validated time stamps, and independent studies have found only modest concordance ( r = 0.15–0.45) between 24HDR-reported eating times and contemporaneous food diaries 26 .”
InfluentialChrononutrition in Chronic Kidney Disease
Castro-Mata, P. C., Cueto-Manzano, A. M., Vizmanos-Lamotte, B., González-Ortíz, A., Betancourt‐Núñez, A., & Martín-del-Campo, F. (2025) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu17030389 · Cited by 5
Murakami, K., Shinozaki, N., Livingstone, M. B. E., McCaffrey, T. A., Masayasu, S., & Sasaki, S. (2025) · Nutrition Journal · doi:10.1186/s12937-025-01129-1 · Cited by 6
“Development of the CNBQ was informed by existing questionnaires [64–70] and several reviews [9, 11, 71] in the field of temporal patterns of eating and chrononutrition.”
Hung, A.-Y., Chien, L.-C., & Lin, R. (2022) · Industrial Health · doi:10.2486/indhealth.2021-0278 · Cited by 5
Wearable Cameras Reveal Large Intra-Individual Variability in Timing of Eating among Young Adults
Wang, L., Chan, V., Allman-Farinelli, M. A., Davies, A. J., Wellard‐Cole, L., & Rangan, A. (2022) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu14204349 · Cited by 6
Murakami, K., Shinozaki, N., McCaffrey, T. A., Livingstone, M. B. E., Masayasu, S., & Sasaki, S. (2025) · International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity · doi:10.1186/s12966-025-01740-9 · Cited by 6
“It is important to assess a comprehensive set of chrononutrition-related parameters, as the variables having the greatest pertinence to chrononutrition research have not yet been identified [6, 36].”
InfluentialTime-restricted eating as a novel strategy for treatment of obesity and it’s comorbid conditions
Berkovskaya, M. A., Gurova, O. Y., Khaykina, I. A., & Fadeev, V. V. (2022) · Problems of Endocrinology · doi:10.14341/probl13078 · Cited by 6
Zhang, Y., Zhou, S., Liu, S., Wang, Y., Zhou, H., Wang, J., Wang, L., & Wang, X. (2024) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2024.1489459 · Cited by 4
Is There a Utility of Chrono‐Specific Diets in Improving Cardiometabolic Health?
Yong, Y. N., Henry, C. J., & Haldar, S. (2022) · Molecular Nutrition & Food Research · doi:10.1002/mnfr.202200043 · Cited by 5
Rodrigues, P. R. M., Monteiro, L. S., de Vasconcelos, T. M., Alves, I. A., Yokoo, E. M., Sichieri, R., & Pereira, R. A. (2024) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph21111403 · Cited by 3
“Nevertheless, Dashti et al. [44] emphasize that diverse factors may determine the timing of eating, including environmental, cultural, behavioral, and physiological factors, for example, work routine like shift work, irregular part-time work, or long work hours [8].”
Lo, Y.-P., Tahara, Y., Khaing, I. K., Mochida, S., Makino, N., Nozawa, Y., Furutani, A., Kubo, T., & Shibata, S. (2024) · Chronobiology International · doi:10.1080/07420528.2024.2422868 · Cited by 3
“Notably, dinner has a significant impact on sleep, and having meals too late may lead to a misalignment between the central clock and peripheral clocks, disrupting the body’s circadian rhythm and affecting metabolism and blood sugar levels (BaHammam and Pirzada 2023; Dashti et al. 2019).”
Say, Y., Nordin, M. S., & Ng, A. L. O. (2025) · Chronobiology International · doi:10.1080/07420528.2025.2495161 · Cited by 6
“This finding is similar to previous studies that examined the differences between weekdays and weekends (Benedict et al. 2021; Dashti et al. 2019; Veronda and Irish 2021).”
Integral Analysis of Circadian Rhythms
Vicente-Martínez, J., González-Romero, P., Pagán, P., Martínez-Nicolás, A., Madrid, J. A., Rol, M. A., & Bonmatí‐Carrión, M. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-32729-2_9 · Cited by 3
The Effect of Personality on Chrononutrition during the COVID-19 Lockdown in Qatar
Al-Abdi, T., Heraclides, A., Papageorgiou, A., & Philippou, E. (2022) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu14132725 · Cited by 3
“Several studies have found that late meal intake is indicative of excessive total daily intake [45,55], weight gain [23], and higher BMI [56,57].”
BackgroundDaily Brain Metabolic Rhythms of Wild Nocturnal Bats
Wang, T., Wang, H., Chu, Y., Bao, M., Li, X., Zhang, G., & Feng, J. (2024) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms25189850 · Cited by 3
“It has been reported that the timing of food intake plays a crucial role in maintaining metabolic health or treating impaired metabolic processes in pathological conditions [59–61].”
BackgroundD’cunha, K., Park, Y., Leech, R. M., Protani, M. M., Marquart, L., & Reeves, M. M. (2024) · Journal of Cancer Survivorship · doi:10.1007/s11764-024-01680-6 · Cited by 2
“However, the study sample included predominantly White Caucasian women, limiting generalizability to other populations, especially given that sleep and eating practices often differ between ethnic and cultural backgrounds [47–49].”
Associations of temporal protein patterns with diabetes and glycemic measures
Arini, H. R. B., Leech, R. M., Tan, S., & McNaughton, S. A. (2025) · Nutrition Journal · doi:10.1186/s12937-025-01221-6 · Cited by 2
“The finding of higher protein intake in the evening is similar to earlier studies reporting the largest protein intake in the evening meals among British, American, and New Zealand adults [10, 15, 16].”
Diet, physical activity and obesity incidence in adolescents with disabilities
Hidayati, T., Suen, M.-W., Indriawati, R., & Akrom, A. (2023) · Bali Medical Journal · doi:10.15562/bmj.v12i1.3778 · Cited by 2
Could “Eating Behavior” be a novel lifestyle factor that modulates risk of gastrointestinal cancers?
Trinh, J. Q., & Bishehsari, F. (2022) · HepatoBiliary Surgery and Nutrition · doi:10.21037/hbsn-22-17 · Cited by 2
Arlinghaus, A., Vetter, C., & Gärtner, J. (2022) · sozialpolitik ch · doi:10.18753/2297-8224-220 · Cited by 1
Bozkır, Ç. (2024) · Çukurova Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi dergisi/Çukurova tarım ve gıda bilimleri dergisi :/Çukurova tarım ve gıda bilimleri dergisi · doi:10.36846/cjafs.2024.147 · Cited by 1
Huang, Y. C., Xu, Y.-X., Shen, Y., Zhou, Y., Wan, Y., Tao, F., & Sun, Y. (2024) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114524001636 · Cited by 1
Bettini, S., Carraro, E., Pilatone, A., Schiff, S., Girardi, P., D’Angelo, M., Begolli, A., Mansouri, F., Toosinezhad, S., Sandri, S., et al. (2025) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu17172901 · Cited by 1
“The timing of food intake has been reported as essential in maintaining metabolic health or treating impaired metabolic processes in pathological conditions [13,14].”
Tillman, I., Maukonen, M., Ruokolahti, A. M., Vepsäläinen, H., Ray, C., Rahkola, J., Roos, E., Erkkola, M., & Lehto, R. (2025) · European Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1007/s00394-025-03800-z · Cited by 1
“This phenomenon may be attributed to children with evening chronotype tendencies allowing families to follow their natural preferences [ 21].”
Fernández‐Rodríguez, R., Boira-Nacher, B., Visier‐Alfonso, M. E., Torres-Costoso, A. I., Martínez‐Vizcaíno, V., & Ruiz, J. R. (2025) · Obesity Reviews · doi:10.1111/obr.70061 · Cited by 1
“These specific characteristics of TRE might be related to benefits or disadvantages for behavioral adherence [18–20].”
Evaluating the Accuracy of Declared Eating Schedules by Continuous Glucose Monitoring
González-Romero, P., Madrid, J. A., Pagán, P., & Rol, M. A. (2026) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu18050772 · Cited by 1
Design and analysis of batched order-of-addition experiments
Zhao, C., Chen, J., & Liu, M. (2026) · Computational Statistics & Data Analysis · doi:10.1016/j.csda.2026.108386 · Cited by 1
Aljaadi, A. M., Bogis, R. J., Alruhili, N. A., Alharbi, S. O., & Noorwali, E. A. (2023) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu15184018 · Cited by 1
“We believe that no other studies have explored the relationship between stress and consuming meals at set times during the pandemic and this need to be confirmed in other populations, taking into consideration multiple factors [43].”
BackgroundKAJIAN PEMAHAMAN ARTI PENTING DIET SEHAT BAGI MAHASISWA
Suryani, C. L., & Murti, S. T. C. (2024) · Jurnal Edukasi Pengabdian Masyarakat · doi:10.36636/eduabdimas.v3i1.3721 · Cited by 1
Тенденції вибору збалансованого харчування споживачами послуг індустрії гостинності
Тарасюк, Г. М., & Чагайда, А. О. (2024) · Економіка управління та адміністрування · doi:10.26642/ema-2024-1(107)-26-38 · Cited by 1
Wang, Y., Cao, Y., Zhou, X., Liu, Y., Wu, J. T., & Ming, L. (2025) · Diabetology & Metabolic Syndrome · doi:10.1186/s13098-025-01853-y · Cited by 1
“This finding aligns with prior research suggesting that dietary patterns can impact metabolic regulation [33, 34].”
Lages, M., Carmo‐Silva, S., Barros, R., & Guarino, M. P. (2025) · Applied Food Research · doi:10.1016/j.afres.2025.101242 · Cited by 1
Hari, R., Marikutty, & Giri, P. V. (2022) · International Research Journal of Ayurveda & Yoga · doi:10.47223/irjay.2022.5706 · Cited by 1
Multiple inducible thermogenic mechanisms in the development of cold acclimatization
Lu, H., & Luo, W. (2023) · Frigid Zone Medicine · doi:10.2478/fzm-2023-0011
Relación entre el horario de comidas, la composición corporal y pérdida de peso
Perez, C. A. (2023) · MLS Health & Nutrition Research · doi:10.60134/mlshn.v2i1.1837
The Benefits of Selected Nutritional Compounds Towards Atherosclerosis Management
Poznyak, A. V., Ekta, M. B., Sukhorukov, V. N., Popov, M. A., & Grechko, A. V. (2023) · OnLine Journal of Biological Sciences · doi:10.3844/ojbsci.2024.48.63
“Notably, intermittent fasting showed no safety concerns (Dashti et al ., 2019).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Dashti, H. S., Scheer, F. A. J. L., Saxena, R., & Garaulet, M.
- Affiliations
- Broad Institute (US)
- Instituto Murciano de Investigación Biosanitaria (ES)
- Corresponding author
- Dashti, Hassan S
- Venue
- Advances in Nutrition
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2019-07
- Volume
- 10
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 606-620
- ISSN
- 2156-5376 (ISSN-L)
- 2161-8313
- PMC
- PMC6628856
- OpenAlex
- W2943037971
- Cited by
- 121
- References
- 117
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 22 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 17 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 4
- FWCI
- 4.13
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Advances in Nutrition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (R01HL094806, R01HL118601, R01DK099512, R01DK102696, R01DK105072, DK107859)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology (medical) › Dietary Effects on Health
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Circadian rhythm and melatonin
- Keywords
- meal timing, intervention design, physiological factors, vulnerable populations, lifestyle modification, disease prevention, metabolic health
- MeSH terms
- Age Factors, Energy Intake, Diet, Eating, Feeding Behavior, Female, Humans, Life Style, Male, Metabolic Diseases, Obesity, Surveys and Questionnaires, Sex Factors, Time Factors, Nutrition Policy, Vulnerable Populations, Patient Preference
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