Effects of predation risk on group size, vigilance, and foraging behavior in an African ungulate community
Abstract
Predators alter prey dynamics by direct killing and through the costs of antipredator responses or risk effects.Antipredator behavior includes proactive responses to long-term variation in risk (e.g., grouping patterns) and reactive responses to short-term variation in risk (e.g., intense vigilance).In a 3-year field study, we measured variation in antipredator responses and the foraging costs of these responses for 5 ungulates (zebra, wildebeest, Grant's gazelle, impala, and giraffe) that comprised more than 90% of the prey community available to the 2 locally dominant predators, lions and spotted hyenas.Using a model-selection approach, we examined how vigilance and group size responded to attributes of the predator, prey, and environment.We found that 1) the strength of antipredator responses was affected by attributes of the predator, prey, and environment in which they met; 2) grouping and vigilance were complementary responses; 3) grouping was a proactive response to the use of dangerous habitats, whereas vigilance was a reactive response to finer cues about predation risk; 4) increased vigilance caused a large reduction in foraging for some species (but not all); and 5) there was no clear relationship between direct predation rates and the foraging costs of antipredator responses.Broadly, our results show that antipredator responses and their costs vary in a complex manner among prey species, the predators they face, and the environment in which they meet.
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Gregarious animals in general increase grouping patterns during risky conditions to increase their chances of detecting a predator.
“Gregarious animals in general increase grouping patterns during risky conditions to increase their chances of detecting a predator [41].”
From Effects of Vegetation Structure on the Location of Lion Kill Sites in African Thicket (2016) · cites this paper as [41]
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Self-citationWhat can vigilance tell us about fear?
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Owen‐Smith, N. (2015) · Oikos · doi:10.1111/oik.02218 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Carlson, N. V., Pargeter, H. M., & Templeton, C. N. (2017) · Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology · doi:10.1007/s00265-017-2361-x · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“This was contrary to expectations as vigilance (i.e., scanning behavior) often increases in situations of higher predator threat (Lendrem 1983; Creel et al. 2014).”
BackgroundResultMaximizing foraging success: the roles of group size, predation risk, competition, and ontogeny
Hintz, W. D., & Lonzarich, D. G. (2018) · Ecosphere · doi:10.1002/ecs2.2456 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Behavior and Ecology of Not-So-Social Odontocetes: Cuvier’s and Blainville’s Beaked Whales
Baird, R. W. (2019) · Ethology and behavioral ecology of marine mammals · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-16663-2_14 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“…a small calf that may not have completely developed its diving capabilities might be more likely to associate with other adults as a way of diluting the risk of predation to her calf or to benefit from the increased ability of the group to detect predators (Mann et al. 2000; Creel et al. 2014).”
BackgroundDynamic complexity of a modified Leslie–Gower predator–prey system with fear effect
Chen, M., Takeuchi, Y., & Zhang, J. (2023) · Communications in Nonlinear Science and Numerical Simulation · doi:10.1016/j.cnsns.2023.107109 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Ferraro, K. M., Schmitz, O. J., & McCary, M. A. (2021) · Ecography · doi:10.1111/ecog.06039 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Antipredator response diminishes during periods of resource deficit for a large herbivore
Oates, B. A., Merkle, J. A., Kauffman, M. J., Dewey, S. R., Jimenez, M. D., Vartanian, J. M., Becker, S. A., & Goheen, J. R. (2019) · Ecology · doi:10.1002/ecy.2618 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“In multi-prey systems, species-or population-specific factors such as body size, diet specialization (Creel et al. 2014), and resource limitation (Owen-Smith 2008) are likely to interact to mediate the strength of antipredator responses across prey taxa, leading to outcomes of species interactions…”
BackgroundEvidence for nonconsumptive effects from a large predator in an ungulate prey?
Gehr, B., Hofer, E. J., Ryser, A., Vimercati, E., Vogt, K. A., & Keller, L. F. (2018) · Behavioral Ecology · doi:10.1093/beheco/ary031 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Seigle‐Ferrand, J., Atmeh, K., Gaillard, J., Ronget, V., Morellet, N., Garel, M., Loison, A., & Yannic, G. (2021) · Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.3389/fevo.2020.555429 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“The size of an individual’s home range should vary according to a triptych of factors composed by resources, landscape heterogeneity, and risk (Desy et al., 1990; Haskell et al., 2002; Kittle et al., 2008; Bonnot et al., 2013; Creel et al., 2014).”
BackgroundSocial living simultaneously increases infection risk and decreases the cost of infection
Ezenwa, V. O., & Worsley‐Tonks, K. E. L. (2018) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2018.2142 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Owen‐Smith, N. (2019) · Biological Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2019.01.027 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Creel, S., Becker, M., Dröge, E., M’soka, J., Matandiko, W., Rosenblatt, E., Mweetwa, T., Mwape, H., Vinks, M. A., Goodheart, B., et al. (2019) · Biological Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2019.02.012 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“31 The costs of defense can be manifest through reduced survival, growth or reproduction 32 (Christianson & Creel 2014,Creel et al. 2007,Pangle et al. 2007,Peckarsky et al. 1993,Ruxton 33 1997,Zanette et al. 2011), and studies from a broad range of species have yielded a consensus 34 that inducible…”
BackgroundSelf-citationNightly selection of resting sites and group behavior reveal antipredator strategies in giraffe
Burger, A. L., Fennessy, J., Fennessy, S., & Dierkes, P. W. (2020) · Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1002/ece3.6106 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“Moreover, group size, foraging, and vigilance behavior increased when predators were present (Creel et al., 2014; Muller, Cuthill, & Harris, 2018; Valeix, Loveridge, et al., 2009).”
BackgroundHabitat use of sympatric prey suggests divergent anti-predator responses to recolonizing gray wolves
Dellinger, J. A., Shores, C. R., Craig, A. D., Heithaus, M. R., Ripple, W. J., & Wirsing, A. J. (2018) · Oecologia · doi:10.1007/s00442-018-4323-z · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Complex variation in habitat selection strategies among individuals driven by extrinsic factors
Raynor, E. J., Beyer, H. L., Briggs, J. M., & Joern, A. (2017) · Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1002/ece3.2764 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Movement responses of roe deer to hunting risk
Picardi, S., Basille, M., Peters, W., Ponciano, J., Boitani, L., & Cagnacci, F. (2018) · Journal of Wildlife Management · doi:10.1002/jwmg.21576 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Housing and personality effects on judgement and attention biases in dairy cows
Kremer, L., Bus, J. D., Webb, L. E., Bokkers, E. A. M., ENGEL, B., van der Werf, J. T. N., Schnabel, S., & van Reenen, C. G. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-01843-w · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Group size affects predation risk and foraging success in Pacific salmon at sea
Polyakov, A. Y., Quinn, T. P., Myers, K. W., & Berdahl, A. M. (2022) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.abm7548 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“DISCUSSION Here, we provide a unique test of the canonical “safety-in-numbers” hypothesis (1, 2, 4, 10) and demonstrate that Pacific salmon reduced their vulnerability to predation by schooling, likely by confusing predators.”
BackgroundMethodBifurcation in a modified Leslie-Gower model with nonlocal competition and fear effect
Zhu, F., & Yang, R. (2025) · Discrete and Continuous Dynamical Systems - B · doi:10.3934/dcdsb.2024195 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Dorfman, A., Weiss, O., Hagbi, Z., Levi, A., & Eilam, D. (2020) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.12.023 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Goldenberg, S. Z., Douglas‐Hamilton, I., Daballen, D., & Wittemyer, G. (2016) · Animal Conservation · doi:10.1111/acv.12309 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Clermont, J., Grenier‐Potvin, A., Duchesne, É., Couchoux, C., Broin, F. D., Beardsell, A., Bêty, J., & Berteaux, D. (2021) · Ecosphere · doi:10.1002/ecs2.3858 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Herrik, A. L., Mogensen, N., Svenning, J., & Buitenwerf, R. (2023) · Journal of Applied Ecology · doi:10.1111/1365-2664.14493 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Mixed-species herding levels the landscape of fear
Stears, K., Schmitt, M. H., Wilmers, C., & Shrader, A. (2020) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B · doi:10.1098/rspb.2019.2555 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“This means that grouping behaviour observed across different levels of risk should reflect trade-offs being made by individuals balancing potential costs of competition (increased herd size) with the benefits of predator detection [22].”
A DELAY NONAUTONOMOUS PREDATOR–PREY MODEL FOR THE EFFECTS OF FEAR, REFUGE AND HUNTING COOPERATION
Tiwari, P. K., Verma, M., Pal, S., Kang, Y., & MISRA, A. K. (2021) · Journal of Biological Systems · doi:10.1142/s0218339021500236 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Guo, J., Martín, P. R., Zhang, C., & Zhang, J. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0187747 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Environmental controls on African herbivore responses to landscapes of fear
Davies, A. B., Cromsigt, J. P. G. M., Tambling, C. J., le Roux, E., Vaughn, N. R., Druce, D. J., Marneweck, D. G., & Asner, G. P. (2020) · Oikos · doi:10.1111/oik.07559 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Vigilance, staring and escape running in antipredator behavior of goitered gazelle
Blank, D. A. (2018) · Behavioural Processes · doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2018.07.008 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Habitat selectivity influences the reactive responses of African ungulates to encounters with lions
Martin, J., & Owen‐Smith, N. (2016) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2016.04.003 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Meise, K., Franks, D. W., & Bro‐Jørgensen, J. (2018) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2017.2676 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Serotonergic modulation of vigilance states in zebrafish and mice
Zhao, Y., Huang, C., Gu, Y., Zhao, Y., Ren, W., Wang, Y., Chen, J., Guan, N. N., & Song, J. (2024) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-024-47021-0 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“The self-cognition based vigilance, such as witnes-sing group companions being attacked by predators, also reminds animals to maintain a vigilance behavior state to avoid similar scenarios 12,13,52 .”
Dutour, M., Léna, J., Dumet, A., Gardette, V., Mondy, N., & Lengagne, T. (2019) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s10071-019-01301-1 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Same place, different time, head up: Multiple antipredator responses to a recolonizing apex predator
Esattore, B., Rossi, A. C., Bazzoni, F., Riggio, C., Oliveira, R., Leggiero, I., & Ferretti, F. (2022) · Current Zoology · doi:10.1093/cz/zoac083 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“Increased vigilance maximizes the chances to spot a predator (Pulliam 1973; Roberts 1996) but it may elicit negative consequences on individual foraging efficiency (Creel et al. 2014).”
BackgroundProkopenko, C. M., Avgar, T., Ford, A. T., & Wal, E. V. (2022) · Ecology · doi:10.1002/ecy.3928 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Makin, D. F., Chamaillé‐Jammes, S., & Shrader, A. M. (2017) · Journal of Mammalogy · doi:10.1093/jmammal/gyx177 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“Prey species also can respond to increased predation risk by increasing group sizes, which increases feeding pressure such that large groups attain lower GUDs than small groups (Makin et al. 2012; Creel et al. 2014).”
BackgroundReindeer green‐wave surfing constrained by predators
Rivrud, I. M., Sivertsen, T. R., Mysterud, A., Åhman, B., Støen, O., & Skarin, A. (2018) · Ecosphere · doi:10.1002/ecs2.2210 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“…presence (Valeix et al. 2009, Latombe et al. 2014, Basille et al. 2015) regulating vigilance behavior and flight responses (Lingle and Pellis 2002, Creel et al. 2014), changing time allocated in different habitat types (Creel et al. 2005, Valeix et al. 2009), or change in movement speed…”
BackgroundDavies, A. B., Tambling, C. J., Kerley, G. I. H., & Asner, G. P. (2016) · Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1002/ece3.2312 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“Prey respond to such variation in risk through adjustments to their behavior, including changes in group size (Tambling et al. 2012; Creel et al. 2014), vigilance (P eriquet et al.”
BackgroundInfluentialContext-dependent group size: effects of population density, habitat, and season
Webber, Q. M. R., & Wal, E. V. (2021) · Behavioral Ecology · doi:10.1093/beheco/arab070 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Dynamics in the biparametric spaces of a three-species food chain model with vigilance
Hossain, M., Kumbhakar, R., & Pal, N. (2022) · Chaos Solitons & Fractals · doi:10.1016/j.chaos.2022.112438 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Impact of anthropogenic factors on affiliative behaviors among bonnet macaques
Balasubramaniam, K. N., Marty, P. R., Arlet, M. E., Beisner, B. A., Kaburu, S., Bliss‐Moreau, E., Kodandaramaiah, U., & McCowan, B. (2020) · American Journal of Physical Anthropology · doi:10.1002/ajpa.24013 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Costelloe, B. R., & Rubenstein, D. I. (2015) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2015.08.022 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“For many species, vigilance is incompatible with other activities such as foraging and resting (Creel et al., 2014; Hamel & Côt e, 2008; Lima, 1998; Lima & Dill, 1990; Toïgo, 1999).”
BackgroundPeripheral injury alters schooling behavior in squid, Doryteuthis pealeii
Oshima, M. C., von Treuheim, T. D. P., Carroll, J., Hanlon, R. T., Walters, E. T., & Crook, R. J. (2016) · Behavioural Processes · doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2016.04.008 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Chassagneux, A., Calenge, C., Siat, V., Mortz, P., Baubet, É., & Saı̈d, S. (2019) · Wildlife Biology · doi:10.2981/wlb.00545 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Hoo are you? Tits do not respond to novel predators as threats
Carlson, N. V., Healy, S. D., & Templeton, C. N. (2017) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2017.04.006 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“…species as a predator and taking y, University of St Andrews, , Scotland, U.K.; C. N. Tem3 College Way, Forest Grove, arlson), templeton@pacificu. er Ltd on behalf of The Association . evasive action to avoid being injured or eaten (Caro, 2005; Creel et al., 2014; Cresswell, 2008; Lima, 1998).”
BackgroundSpatiotemporal pattern of interactions between an apex predator and sympatric species
Prat-Guitart, M., Onorato, D. P., Hines, J. E., & Oli, M. K. (2020) · Journal of Mammalogy · doi:10.1093/jmammal/gyaa071 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Badihi, G., Bodden, K., Zuberbühler, K., Samuni, L., & Hobaiter, C. (2022) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.220904 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Temporal shift in activity patterns of Himalayan marmots in relation to pastoralism
Poudel, B. S., Spooner, P., & Matthews, A. (2015) · Behavioral Ecology · doi:10.1093/beheco/arv083 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Effects of lions on behaviour and endocrine stress in plains zebras
Périquet, S., Richardson, P., Cameron, E. Z., Ganswindt, A., Belton, L. E., Loubser, E., & Dalerum, F. (2017) · Ethology · doi:10.1111/eth.12638 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“These factors are also likely to interact in complex ways (Preisser et al. 2009; Creel et al. 2014).”
BackgroundLandscape Level Effects of Lion Presence (Panthera leo) on Two Contrasting Prey Species
Chizzola, M., Belton, L. E., Ganswindt, A., Greco, I., Hall, G., Swanepoel, L. H., & Dalerum, F. (2018) · Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.3389/fevo.2018.00191 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“, 2005), and recent studies have shown that ungulates may use immediate cues about predation risk when selecting where to forage (Valeix et al., 2009; Creel et al., 2014).”
BackgroundDoes death drive the scaling of life?
Glazier, D. S. (2024) · Biological reviews/Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society · doi:10.1111/brv.13153 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“…Peckarsky et al ., 1993; Lüning, 1994; Wooster & Sih, 1995; Lima, 2009; Hawlena & Schmitz, 2010; Møller & Erritzøe, 2010; Glazier & Deptola, 2011; Creel, Schuette & Christianson, 2014; Sheriff & Thaler, 2014; Møller, Kwiecinski & Tryjanowski, 2017; Glazier et al ., 2020 a ; Koch, Hall &…”
Setsaas, T. H., Hunninck, L., Jackson, C. R., May, R. F., & Røskaft, E. (2018) · Global Ecology and Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.gecco.2018.e00467 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“In a social ungulate species such as the impala, group size can play an important role in group functions (Jarman, 1974), anti-predator behaviour (Creel et al., 2014), and intraspecific competition while foraging (Fritz and GarineWichatitsky, 1996).”
BackgroundJung, T. S. (2020) · Global Ecology and Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.gecco.2020.e01303 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Burton, A. C., Beirne, C., Sun, C., Granados, A., Procko, M., Chen, C., Fennell, M., Constantinou, A., Colton, C., Tjaden‐McClement, K., et al. (2022) · Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1002/ece3.9108 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“Ultimately, animal behaviors are complex and influenced by many interrelated factors (Creel et al., 2014; Moll et al., 2016).”
BackgroundMuller, Z., Cuthill, I. C., & Harris, S. (2018) · Journal of Zoology · doi:10.1111/jzo.12571 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“, 2011) may occur 51 due to animals altering the time they invest in vigilance and foraging behaviours (Brown & Kotler, 52 2004) or by changing patterns of habitat use, which influences their ability to forage successfully (Sih 53 & McCarthy, 2002; Creel et al., 2014).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialThe role of vigilance on a discrete-time predator-prey model
Ziyad Alsharawi, A., Pal, N., & Chattopadhyay, J. (2022) · Discrete and Continuous Dynamical Systems - B · doi:10.3934/dcdsb.2022017 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Komodo dragons are not ecological analogs of apex mammalian predators
Jessop, T. S., Ariefiandy, A., Forsyth, D. M., Purwandana, D., White, C. R., Benu, Y. J., Madsen, T. R. L., Harlow, H. J., & Letnic, M. (2020) · Ecology · doi:10.1002/ecy.2970 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Muller, Z., Cuthill, I. C., & Harris, S. (2019) · Ethology · doi:10.1111/eth.12923 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Scheijen, C., van der Merwe, S., Ganswindt, A., & Deacon, F. (2021) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani11051239 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“Grouping and vigilance amongst prey species are complementary responses to risk [59].”
BackgroundKelm, D. H., Toelch, U., & Jones, M. M. (2021) · Frontiers in Zoology · doi:10.1186/s12983-021-00437-6 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Urbanization affects the behavior of a predator-free ungulate in protected lands
Maurer, A. S., Cove, M. V., Siegal, O. M., & Lashley, M. A. (2022) · Landscape and Urban Planning · doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2022.104391 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Short-term social dynamics following anthropogenic and natural disturbances in a free-living mammal
Gall, G. E. C., Evans, J., Silk, M. J., Ortiz‐Jimenez, C. A., & Smith, J. E. (2022) · Behavioral Ecology · doi:10.1093/beheco/arac032 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Species’ traits as predictors of avoidance towards roads and traffic
Duffett, D., D’Amico, M., Mulero‐Pázmány, M., & González‐Suárez, M. (2020) · Ecological Indicators · doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2020.106402 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Sleep in the lesser mouse-deer (Tragulus kanchil)
Lyamin, O. I., Siegel, J. M., Nazarenko, E. A., & Rozhnov, V. V. (2021) · SLEEP · doi:10.1093/sleep/zsab199 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“They rely on coordinated action and increased vigilant behavior [31, 32].”
BackgroundHuang, X., Kanwal, J. S., Jiang, T., Long, Z., Luo, B., Yue, X., Gu, Y., & Feng, J. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0132817 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Dröge, E., Creel, S., Becker, M. S., Christianson, D., M’soka, J., & Watson, F. G. R. (2019) · Biological Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2019.02.031 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“Annual photosynthetic cycles are conspicuous from leaf to landscape levels, and the 296 influence of these cycles on diet quality can be measured by fecal chlorophyll concentration 297 (Christianson & Creel 2009, 2014).”
BackgroundSelf-citationMerrill, E. H., Killeen, J., Pettit, J., Trottier, M., Martin, H., Berg, J., Bohm, H., Eggeman, S., & Hebblewhite, M. (2020) · Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.3389/fevo.2020.00269 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“First, the extent of response may reflect the frequency of reactive vs proactive responses to the risk of predation (Creel et al., 2014; Moll et al., 2017; Cusack et al., 2020).”
BackgroundWronski, T., Bariyanga, J. D., Apio, A., & Plath, M. W. (2015) · The Rangeland Journal · doi:10.1071/rj15025 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Dynamics of a two-prey one-predator model with fear and group defense: A study in parameter planes
Kumbhakar, R., Hossain, M., & Pal, N. (2024) · Chaos Solitons & Fractals · doi:10.1016/j.chaos.2023.114449 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
- Authors
- Creel, S., Schuette, P., & Christianson, D.
- Affiliations
- Montana State University (US)
- University of Arizona (US)
- Venue
- Behavioral Ecology
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2014-04-06
- Volume
- 25
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 773-784
- ISSN
- 1045-2249 (ISSN-L)
- 1465-7279
- OpenAlex
- W2106228428
- Semantic Scholar
- 5549597fcba6c62940491abffdc7ea645c812f77
- Cited by
- 330
- References
- 63
- Citations by year
- 2026: 25 · 2025: 44 · 2024: 34 · 2023: 24 · 2022: 32 · 2021: 33 · 2020: 27 · 2019: 35 · 2018: 27 · 2017: 20 · 2016: 12 · 2015: 12 · 2014: 5
- FWCI
- 14.20
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Behavioral Ecology (publishedVersion)
- Montana State University ScholarWorks (Montana State University) (submittedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (1145749, 0642393)
- Panthera
- Montana State University
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Wildlife Ecology and Conservation
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics › Animal Behavior and Reproduction
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Animal Ecology and Behavior Studies
- Keywords
- predation risk, antipredator behavior, group size, sustained attention, foraging costs, ungulates, zebra, wildebeest, Grant's gazelle, impala, giraffe, lion, spotted hyena, predator-prey interactions, African savanna
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