Cited by 318Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and PostpartumHomicide, Infanticide, and Child AbuseMaternal and fetal healthcare

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Perinatal psychiatric disorders: a leading cause of maternal morbidity and mortality

Oates, Margaret·2003·British Medical Bulletin

DOI 10.1093/bmb/ldg011

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Abstract

The Confidential Enquiry into Maternal Deaths 1997 to 1999 finds that psychiatric disorder, and suicide in particular, is the leading cause of maternal death. Suicide accounted for 28% of maternal deaths. Women also died from other complications of psychiatric disorder and a significant minority from substance misuse. Some of the findings of the Confidential Enquiry confirm long established knowledge about postpartum psychiatric disorder. The findings highlight the severity and early onset of serious postpartum mental illness and of the risk of recurrence following childbirth faced by women with a previous history of serious mental illness either following childbirth or at other times. These findings led to the recommendation that all women should be asked early in their pregnancy about a previous history of serious psychiatric disorder and that management plans should be in place with regard to the high risk of recurrence following delivery. Other findings of the Enquiry were new and challenged some of the accepted wisdoms of obstetrics and psychiatry. It is likely that the suicide rate following delivery is not significantly different to other times in women's lives and for the first 42 days following delivery may be elevated. This calls into question the so-called 'protective effect of maternity'. The overwhelming majority of the suicides died violently, contrasting with the usual finding that women are more likely to die from an overdose of medication. Compared to other causes of maternal death, the suicides were older and socially advantaged. The Enquiry findings suggest that the risk profile for women at risk of suicide following delivery may be different to that in women at other times and in men. None of the women who died had been admitted at any time to a Mother and Baby Unit and their psychiatric care had been undertaken by General Adult Services. None of the women who died had had a previous episode correctly identified and none had had adequate plans for their proactive care. The conclusion is that there is a need for both Psychiatry and Obstetrics to acknowledge the substantial risk that women with a previous psychiatric history of serious mental illness face following delivery.

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Screening pregnant women for suicidal behavior in electronic medical records: diagnostic codes vs. clinical notes processed by natural language processing
Zhong, Q., Karlson, E. W., Gelaye, B., Finan, S., Avillach, P., Smoller, J. W., Cai, T., & Williams, M. A. (2018) · BMC Medical Informatics and Decision Making · doi:10.1186/s12911-018-0617-7 · Cited by 58
“Suicide, a devastating event, is one of the leading cause of maternal deaths during pregnancy and the peripartum period [1, 2].”
Background
Association between Lack of Social Support from Partner or Others and Postpartum Depression among Japanese Mothers: A Population-Based Cross-Sectional Study
Yamada, A., Isumi, A., & Fujiwara, T. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17124270 · Cited by 62
“Women with PPD often have marked distress and dysfunction that disrupt their daily life [4,5], and are more likely to have subsequent depression and suicide [6,7].”
Background
Preventing infant and child morbidity and mortality due to maternal depression
Surkan, P. J., Patel, S. A., & Rahman, A. (2016) · Best Practice & Research Clinical Obstetrics & Gynaecology · doi:10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2016.05.007 · Cited by 64
Factors Related to Seeking Help for Postpartum Depression: A Secondary Analysis of New York City PRAMS Data
Córdoba, S. M., Pickering, S., Ortega, M. A., Asúnsolo, Á., & Romero, D. R. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17249328 · Cited by 55
“In fact, suicide is one of the main causes of death during this period [6,7].”
Developing and validating a perinatal depression screening tool in Kenya blending Western criteria with local idioms: a mixed methods study
Green, E. P., Tuli, H., Kwobah, E., Menya, D., Chesire, I., & Schmidt, C. (2018) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2017.11.027 · Cited by 53
The management of bipolar disorder in the perinatal period and risk factors for postpartum relapse
Doyle, K., Heron, J., Berrisford, G. S., Whitmore, J., Jones, L. A., Wainscott, G., & Oyebode, F. (2011) · European Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2011.06.011 · Cited by 54
The association between gestational diabetes mellitus, antipsychotics and severe mental illness in pregnancy: A multicentre study
Galbally, M., Frayne, J. S., Watson, S., Morgan, V. A., & Snellen, M. (2019) · Australian and New Zealand Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology · doi:10.1111/ajo.12986 · Cited by 52
Use of natural language processing in electronic medical records to identify pregnant women with suicidal behavior: towards a solution to the complex classification problem
Zhong, Q., Mittal, L. P., Nathan, M., Brown, K. M., Gonzalez, D. K., Cai, T. A., Finan, S., Gelaye, B., Avillach, P., Smoller, J. W., et al. (2018) · European Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s10654-018-0470-0 · Cited by 51
Expanding Access to Perinatal Depression Treatment in Kenya Through Automated Psychological Support: Development and Usability Study (Preprint)
Green, E. P., Lai, Y., Pearson, N., Rajasekharan, S., Rauws, M., Joerin, A., Kwobah, E., Musyimi, C., Jones, R. M., Bhat, C., et al. (2020) · doi:10.2196/preprints.17895 · Cited by 49
“The condition is associated with a number of poor outcomes in women and their children, including increased maternal morbidity and mortality [3,4], poor infant health [5-9], and poor developmental outcomes [10-12].”
Background
Pregnancy-related Deaths in Rural Rajasthan, India: Exploring Causes, Context, and Care-seeking Through Verbal Autopsy
Iyengar, K., Iyengar, S. D., Suhalka, V., & Dashora, K. (2009) · Journal of Health Population and Nutrition · doi:10.3329/jhpn.v27i2.3370 · Cited by 47
“In western societies, some studies have suggested that intentional injuries and, possibly, unintentional injuries may be more common among women during pregnancy (16).”
Background
Prevalence and correlates of suicidality among Indian women with post-partum psychosis in an inpatient setting
Babu, G. N., Subbakrishna, D. K., & Chandra, P. S. (2008) · Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/00048670802415384 · Cited by 47
“jumping, hanging) than expected in the non-post-partum population [4,5].”
Background
The role of parenting stress in mediating the relationship between neighborhood social cohesion and depression and anxiety among mothers of young children in fragile families
McCloskey, R. J., & Pei, F. (2019) · Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/jcop.22160 · Cited by 46
“, 2013), mortality (Oates, 2003), compromised mother-child relationships (O’Higgins, Roberts, Glover, & Taylor, 2013), arrested child development (Apter-Levy, Feldman, Vakart, Ebstein, & Feldman, 2013; Beck, 1998; GressSmith, Leucken, Lemery-Chalfant, & Howe, 2012; Stewart, 2007) poor mental health in offspring (Glove…”
Background
The global prevalence of postpartum suicidal ideation, suicide attempts, and suicide mortality: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Amiri, S., & Behnezhad, S. (2021) · International Journal of Mental Health · doi:10.1080/00207411.2021.1959814 · Cited by 44
“Suicide is one of the leading causes of death and is among the main factors of maternal deaths in some countries (Oates, 2003).”
Background
Effect of postpartum depression on women’s mental and physical health four years after childbirth
Abdollahi, F., & Zarghami, M. (2018) · Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal · doi:10.26719/2018.24.10.1002 · Cited by 58
Childhood abuse and suicidal ideation in a cohort of pregnant Peruvian women
Zhong, Q., Wells, A. M., Rondón, M. B., Williams, M. A., Barrios, Y. V., Sánchez, S. E., & Gelaye, B. (2016) · American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology · doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2016.04.052 · Cited by 45
Mental health service use among pregnant and early postpartum women
Lee-Carbon, L., Nath, S., Trevillion, K., Byford, S., Howard, L. M., Challacombe, F. L., & Heslin, M. (2022) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-022-02331-w · Cited by 46
Adaptation of independent midwives to the COVID-19 pandemic: A national descriptive survey
Baumann, S., Gaucher, L., Bourgueil, Y., Saint‐Lary, O., Gautier, S., & Rousseau, A. (2020) · Midwifery · doi:10.1016/j.midw.2020.102918 · Cited by 40
Do Maternal Depression and Self-Esteem Moderate and Mediate the Association Between Intimate Partner Violence After Childbirth and Postpartum Suicidal Ideation?
Islam, M. J., Broidy, L. M., Mazerolle, P., Baird, K. M., Mazumder, N., & Zobair, K. M. (2019) · Archives of Suicide Research · doi:10.1080/13811118.2019.1655507 · Cited by 47
“Maternal suicidality is the most severe mental health outcome to manifest in the postpartum period, and is a critical contributor to maternal mortality worldwide (Oates, 2003; Palladino, Singh, Campbell, Flynn, & Gold, 2011; World Health Organization, 2014).”
Background
Using clinical decision support as a means of implementing a universal postpartum depression screening program
Loudon, H., Nentin, F., & Silverman, M. E. (2015) · Archives of Women s Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s00737-015-0596-y · Cited by 44
“2014) and in some cases suicide (Oates 2003).”
Background
Clinique et épidémiologie des troubles anxieux et dépressifs de la grossesse et du post-partum. Revue et synthèse
Dayan, J. (2007) · Journal de gynécologie, obstétrique et biologie de la reproduction. Supplément/Journal de gynécologie obstétrique et biologie de la reproduction · doi:10.1016/j.jgyn.2007.06.003 · Cited by 50
The relationships of social support, uncertainty, self‐efficacy, and commitment to prenatal psychosocial adaptation
Choi, W. H. H., Lee, G., Chan, C., Cheung, R. Y.-H., Lee, I. L. Y., & Chan, C. (2012) · Journal of Advanced Nursing · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2648.2012.05962.x · Cited by 37
“Psychiatric illness has been identified as the leading cause of maternal morbidity and mortality in the UK (Oates 2003), and as one of the top three causes of indirect maternal mortality in Australia (Austin et al.”
Background
Prescribing in pregnancy and during breast feeding: using principles in clinical practice
Henderson, E., & Mackillop, L. H. (2011) · Postgraduate Medical Journal · doi:10.1136/pgmj.2010.103606 · Cited by 36
“If a woman has had previous peripartum psychiatric illness, particularly puerperal psychosis, she is at high risk of recurrence of the illness in subsequent pregnancies.(37) Such women require antenatal assessment by a psychiatrist and continued careful monitoring in the postnatal period.”
Background
Factors associated with postpartum depression in women from low socioeconomic level in Argentina: A hierarchical model approach
Pham, D., Cormick, G., Amyx, M. M., Gibbons, L., Doty, M., Brown, A., Norwood, A., Daray, F. M., Althabe, F., & Belizán, J. M. (2017) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2017.11.091 · Cited by 43
Suicide Risk and Mood Disorders in Women in the Postpartum Period: a Longitudinal Study
Quevedo, L. D. Á., Scholl, C. C., de Matos, M. B., da Silva, R. A., Coelho, F. M. D. C., Pinheiro, K. A. T., & Pinheiro, R. T. (2020) · Psychiatric Quarterly · doi:10.1007/s11126-020-09823-5 · Cited by 35
Nutritional factors and cross-national postpartum depression prevalence: an updated meta-analysis and meta-regression of 412 studies from 46 countries
Fish‐Williamson, A., & Hahn‐Holbrook, J. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1193490 · Cited by 48
Celebrating the “Other” Parent: Mental Health and Wellness of Expecting Lesbian, Bisexual, and Queer Non-Birth Parents
Abelsohn, K., Epstein, R., & Ross, L. E. (2013) · Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health · doi:10.1080/19359705.2013.771808 · Cited by 34
“, 2007), despite strong evidence for health and mental health disparities associated with minority sexual orientation in the general population (Sandfort, Bakker, Schellevis, & Vanwesenbeeck, 2006; Cochran & Mays, 2007) and high rates of mental health problems for women during their childbearing years (O’Hara & Swain,…”
Background
Maternal suicide in Italy
the Regional maternal mortality working group, Lega, I., Maraschini, A., D’Aloja, P., Andreozzi, S., Spettoli, D., Giangreco, M., Vichi, M., Loghi, M., & Donati, S. (2019) · Archives of Women s Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s00737-019-00977-1 · Cited by 34
“The maternal suicide ratio ((MSR) i.e. the number of suicides of women while pregnant or within 365 days of termination of pregnancy per 100,000 live births) was found to be 3.7 per 100,000 live births in 1980–2007 in Sweden (Esscher et al. 2016) and 3.0 in 1997–1999 in the UK (Oates 2003b).”
BackgroundInfluential
Two studies on suicidality in the postpartum
Pinheiro, R. T., da Silva, R. A., Magalhães, P. V. D. S., Horta, B. L., & Pinheiro, K. A. T. (2008) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2008.01184.x · Cited by 34
“Suicide is a leading cause of maternal death (1, 2).”
Background
Puerperal psychosis: identifying and caring for women at risk
Jones, I. D., & Smith, S. (2009) · Advances in Psychiatric Treatment · doi:10.1192/apt.bp.107.004333 · Cited by 38
Postpartum electroconvulsive therapy: a systematic review and case report
Gressier, F., Rotenberg, S., Cazas, O., & Hardy, P. (2015) · General Hospital Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2015.04.009 · Cited by 38
Long-term mortality in mothers of infants with neonatal abstinence syndrome: A population-based parallel-cohort study in England and Ontario, Canada
Guttmann, A., Blackburn, R. M., Amartey, A., Zhou, L., Wijlaars, L. P. M. M., Saunders, N. R., Harron, K. L., Chiu, M., & Gilbert, R. E. (2019) · PLoS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1002974 · Cited by 32
Prenatal methamphetamine—impact on the mother and child—a review
Perez, F. A., Blythe, S., Wouldes, T., McNamara, K., Black, K. I., & Oei, J. L. (2022) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.15509 · Cited by 31
Trajectories and predictors of perinatal depressive symptoms among Kenyan women: a prospective cohort study
Larsen, A., Pintye, J. C., Marwa, M. M., Watoyi, S., Kinuthia, J., Abuna, F., Richardson, B. A., Gómez, L., Dettinger, J. C., & John-Stewart, G. C. (2022) · The Lancet Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(22)00110-9 · Cited by 33
FUNCTIONS OF SUPPORT GROUP COMMUNICATION FOR WOMEN WITH POSTPARTUM DEPRESSION: HOW SUPPORT GROUPS SILENCE AND ENCOURAGE VOICES OF MOTHERHOOD
Anderson, L. N. (2013) · Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/jcop.21566 · Cited by 30
Assessment and treatment of bipolar II postpartum depression: A review
Sharma, V., Burt, V. K., & Ritchie, H. L. (2009) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2009.09.014 · Cited by 30
Short-Term Outcomes of Mothers and Newborn Infants with Comorbid Psychiatric Disorders and Drug Dependency
Oei, J. L., Abdellatif, M., Craig, F. F., Kee, A., Austin, M., Lui, K., & on behalf of the NSW and ACT NAS Epidemiology Group (2009) · Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/00048670902721087 · Cited by 29
“Whether these are due to drug effects or to preexisting morbidities [4] is uncertain but drug exposure and psychiatric dysfunction in expectant mothers may act as independent risk factors for poor outcomes such as prematurity, low birthweight [5], increased maternal morbidity and mortality [6] and poor parenting pract…”
Background
Perinatal Mental Illness in the Middle East and North Africa Region—A Systematic Overview
Doraiswamy, S., Jithesh, A., Chaabane, S., Abraham, A., Chaabna, K., & Cheema, S. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17155487 · Cited by 34
“Studies also report suicide as one of the major causes for maternal mortality in several countries [3,4].”
Background
Mental healthcare-seeking behavior during the perinatal period among women in rural Bangladesh
Dutta, G. K., Sarker, B. K., Ahmed, H. U., Bhattacharyya, D. S., Rahman, M. M., Majumder, R., & Biswas, T. K. (2022) · BMC Health Services Research · doi:10.1186/s12913-022-07678-z · Cited by 30
Maternal depression research: socioeconomic analysis and density-equalizing mapping of the global research architecture
Brüggmann, D., Wagner, C. D., Klingelhöfer, D., Schöffel, N., Bendels, M. H. K., Louwen, F., Jaque, J. M., & Groneberg, D. A. (2016) · Archives of Women s Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s00737-016-0669-6 · Cited by 28
“Disorders of this spectrum are linked to an increased risk of suicide, impaired mother-child bonding, infanticide, marital discord, or poor child development (Murray et al. 1996; Oates 2003).”
Background
The interaction of pregnancy, substance use and mental illness on birthing outcomes in Australia
Zhao, L. Y., McCauley, K., & Sheeran, L. (2017) · Midwifery · doi:10.1016/j.midw.2017.08.007 · Cited by 31
“There is compelling evidence showing women are particularly vulnerable to the recurrence or emergence of mental health problems during pregnancy and the new motherhood period (Fisher et al., 2012; Oates, 2003).”
Background

Authors: Oates, M.
Affiliations: University of Nottingham (GB)
Corresponding author: Oates, Margaret
Venue: British Medical Bulletin
Publisher: Oxford University Press (OUP)
Published: 2003-12-01
Volume: 67
Issue: 1
Pages: 219-229
ISSN: 0007-1420 (ISSN-L)
1471-8391
DOI: 10.1093/bmb/ldg011
OpenAlex: W2137670496
Cited by: 317
References: 16
Citations by year: 2026: 8 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 16 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 17 · 2021: 20 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 22 · 2018: 18 · 2017: 18 · 2016: 21 · 2015: 21 · 2014: 21 · 2013: 18 · 2012: 12
FWCI: 4.06
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: British Medical Bulletin (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Homicide, Infanticide, and Child Abuse
Health Sciences › Medicine › Pediatrics, Perinatology and Child Health › Maternal and fetal healthcare
Keywords: perinatal psychiatric disorders, maternal mortality, maternal suicide, postpartum mental disorders, severe mental illness, substance abuse, confidential enquiry into maternal deaths, maternal morbidity
MeSH terms: Female, Humans, Maternal Mortality, Pregnancy, Psychotic Disorders, Puerperal Disorders, Recurrence, Risk, Suicide

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Perinatal psychiatric disorders: a leading cause of maternal morbidity and mortality

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