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Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children.
Open accessAbstract
Learning to associate auditory information of speech sounds with visual information of letters is a first and critical step for becoming a skilled reader in alphabetic languages. Nevertheless, it remains largely unknown which brain areas subserve the learning and automation of such associations. Here, we employ functional magnetic resonance imaging to study letter-speech sound integration in children with and without developmental dyslexia. The results demonstrate that dyslexic children show reduced neural integration of letters and speech sounds in the planum temporale/Heschl sulcus and the superior temporal sulcus. While cortical responses to speech sounds in fluent readers were modulated by letter-speech sound congruency with strong suppression effects for incongruent letters, no such modulation was observed in the dyslexic readers. Whole-brain analyses of unisensory visual and auditory group differences additionally revealed reduced unisensory responses to letters in the fusiform gyrus in dyslexic children, as well as reduced activity for processing speech sounds in the anterior superior temporal gyrus, planum temporale/Heschl sulcus and superior temporal sulcus. Importantly, the neural integration of letters and speech sounds in the planum temporale/Heschl sulcus and the neural response to letters in the fusiform gyrus explained almost 40% of the variance in individual reading performance. These findings indicate that an interrelated network of visual, auditory and heteromodal brain areas contributes to the skilled use of letter-speech sound associations necessary for learning to read. By extending similar findings in adults, the data furthermore argue against the notion that reduced neural integration of letters and speech sounds in dyslexia reflect the consequence of a lifetime of reading struggle. Instead, they support the view that letter-speech sound integration is an emergent property of learning to read that develops inadequately in dyslexic readers, presumably as a result of a deviant interactive specialization of neural systems for processing auditory and visual linguistic inputs.
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
Dyslexic children showed reduced neural integration of letters and speech sounds in left planum temporale/Heschl sulcus and superior temporal sulcus, alongside weaker unisensory responses to speech sounds and letters. The integration and visual letter responses together explained almost 40% of variance in reading performance, suggesting letter-speech sound integration is an emergent property of learning to read that develops inadequately in dyslexia.
Key findings
- Dyslexic children had reduced congruency effects for letter-speech sound pairs in left planum temporale/Heschl sulcus (117 voxels, t = 16.7, P = 0.00) and bilateral superior temporal sulcus (left: t = 7.73, P = 0.01; right: t = 8.34, P = 0.01); fluent readers showed stronger activation for congruent than incongruent pairs, while dyslexic readers showed no such modulation.
- Unisensory group differences included weaker speech-sound responses in anterior superior temporal gyrus (left t = 2.89, right t = 2.8, P = 0.01) and weaker letter responses in fusiform gyrus bilaterally (left t = 3.83, P = 0.00; right t = 4.51, P = 0.00) in dyslexic children.
- The congruency effect in planum temporale/Heschl sulcus and the visual response in fusiform gyrus explained almost 40% of variance in reading performance (R² = 0.39); PT/HS alone: R = 0.51, R² change = 0.27, F = 12.04, P = 0.002; combined model: R = 0.62, R² change = 0.11, F = 5.73, P = 0.023.
- Attention task performance was comparable: fluent readers mean = 97.91, SEM = 1.55; dyslexic readers mean = 99.08, SEM = 0.55; reaction times 575 ms vs 609 ms, P = 0.10.
Methods
- fMRI study of 18 dyslexic children (mean age 9.39, SD 0.43, one female) and 16 non-impaired readers (mean age 9.43, SD 0.44, four females), all healthy, right-handed, native Dutch speakers, matched for educational level, age, handedness and IQ.
- Block design with four conditions: unisensory letters, unisensory speech sounds, multisensory congruent letter-speech sound pairs, and multisensory incongruent pairs; 128 stimuli per condition; children performed an attention detection task; data acquired on a 3 T Siemens scanner and analyzed in BrainVoyager QX using random-effects GLMs, including a 2 × 2 reading status × multisensory condition interaction.
- Offline standardized battery included reading, phoneme deletion, phonological decoding, and letter-to-sound matching; correlations and stepwise multiple linear regressions related fMRI responses to reading performance.
Limitations
- The paper states that the linear regression results should be treated with caution because of the small sample size of neuroimaging studies, and that the assumption about child-adult differences needs further empirical validation.
- Evident from the text: the design is cross-sectional, so it cannot directly establish causality, although the authors argue the integration deficit is not merely a consequence of a lifetime of reading struggle.
- Evident from the text: brain-behaviour correlations became non-significant when reading group was partialled out, indicating they were driven by group differences in reading ability; the total sample was small (n = 34) and the dyslexic group included only one female.
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Claims the paper makes
43 Own result · 21 Not checked yet · 16 Own interpretation · 7 Own method
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“as well as reduced activity for processing speech sounds in the anterior superior temporal gyrus, planum temporale/Heschl sulcus and superior temporal sulcus.”
- Also stated in: § Unisensory activations · plain
“Dyslexic children showed weaker activity for processing speech sounds in the anterior superior temporal gyrus (Fig. 2A)”
§ Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Unisensory activations · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Importantly, the neural integration of letters and speech sounds in the planum temporale/Heschl sulcus and the neural response to letters in the fusiform gyrus explained almost 40% of the variance in individual reading performance.”
§ Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Whole-brain analyses of unisensory visual and auditory group differences additionally revealed reduced unisensory responses to letters in the fusiform gyrus in dyslexic children”
§ Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The results demonstrate that dyslexic children show reduced neural integration of letters and speech sounds in the planum temporale/Heschl sulcus and the superior temporal sulcus.”
§ Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children > Abstract
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In addition, non-impaired and dyslexic readers responded equally fast to attention stimuli (fluent: mean = 575 ms, SEM = 16.1;dyslexic: mean = 609 ms, SEM = 14.0;P = 0.10), indicating that attention levels were comparable across reading groups.”
§ Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children > Attention task
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Together, these two neural effects explained almost 40% of the variance in reading performance (R 2 = 0.39).”
§ Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children > Correlations with performance
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“while the congruency effect explained an additional 20% of the variance above and beyond the auditory response to speech.”
§ Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children > Correlations with performance
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Auditory effects explained no additional variance that was not already explained by the effect of congruency in planum temporale/Heschl sulcus and superior temporal sulcus”
§ Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children > Correlations with performance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The results revealed a significant interaction in the dorsal part of the left superior temporal gyrus (planum temporale) in close proximity to primary auditory cortex (Heschl sulcus) (Table 2).”
§ Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children > Multisensory activations
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In multisensory conditions, we found weaker effects of congruency in the planum temporale/Heschl sulcus and the superior temporal sulcus of dyslexic children”
§ Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children > Discussion
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- It may state two separate claims as one. 19
- Probably not a substantial claim. 15
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While cortical responses to speech sounds in fluent readers were modulated by letter-speech sound congruency with strong suppression effects for incongruent letters, no such modulation was observed in the dyslexic readers.”
§ Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children > Abstract
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Specifically, dyslexic readers showed impaired reading (within the lower 10th percentile on a standardized test of word reading) and poor performance on subtests involving phonological awareness and phonological decoding (Table 1).”
§ Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children > Offline behaviour/diagnostic testing
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Figure 4 illustrates that the fMRI congruency response in planum temporale/Heschl sulcus and superior temporal sulcus correlated positively with accuracy on the reading task and negatively with reaction times on letter-speech sound matching (Fig. 4A and B).”
§ Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children > Correlations with performance
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Faster processing is one of the main indices of automation for a cognitive process.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“All reported correlations turned out to be non-significant when the factor reading group was controlled using partial correlations, suggesting that the brainbehaviour correlations were driven by group differences in reading ability.”
§ Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children > Correlations with performance
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Moreover, the auditory response in the anterior superior temporal gyrus correlated with reading accuracy and the speed of letter-speech sound matching (Fig. 4C) as did the visual response in the fusiform gyrus (Fig. 4D).”
§ Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children > Correlations with performance
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Faster processing is one of the main indices of automation for a cognitive process.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Comparable to planum temporale/ Heschl sulcus, fluent readers activated the superior temporal sulcus more for the presentation of congruent as opposed to incongruent letter-speech sound pairs, while dyslexic readers showed no congruency effect.”
§ Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children > Multisensory activations
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Dyslexic children showed weaker activity for processing speech sounds in the anterior superior temporal gyrus (Fig. 2A) and for processing letters in an area around the fusiform gyrus bilaterally (Table 2 and Fig. 2B).”
§ Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children > Unisensory activations
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Moreover, the visual response in left and right fusiform gyrus correlated with congruency effects in planum temporale/Heschl sulcus (left fusiform gyrus: R = 0.38, P = 0.025; right fusiform gyrus: R = 0.37, P = 0.030), with fluent readers showing stronger responses to letters and a stronger effect of letter-speech sound congruency.”
§ Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children > Correlation between unisensory and multisensory cortical responses
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“More concretely, weaker congruency effects in planum temporale/Heschl sulcus as well as superior temporal sulcus of dyslexic children were associated with lower reading scores, while stronger congruency effects in fluent readers were associated with higher reading scores.”
§ Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children > Multisensory processing of letters and speech sounds
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“neural integration responses in planum temporale/Heschl sulcus and superior temporal sulcus correlated with the speed of performance on letter-speech sound matching, in the absence of accuracy differences for judging the congruency between letters and sounds.”
§ Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children > Multisensory processing of letters and speech sounds
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Thus, the relationship between reading acquisition and awareness for speech sounds is likely to be reciprocal (Perfetti et al., 1987;Wagner and Torgesen, 1987;Torgesen et al., 1994;Ehri, 2005;Ziegler and Goswami, 2005).”
§ Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Perfetti et al., 1987
- Not checked yetcites Wagner and Torgesen, 1987
- Not checked yetcites Torgesen et al., 1994 source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Criteria for dyslexia were based on a discrepancy score between performance on the reading test and IQ, according to which children with a standard reading score within the lower 10th percentile, but average IQ score were classified as dyslexic (Table 1).”
§ Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children > Methods Participants
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Instead, they support the view that letter-speech sound integration is an emergent property of learning to read that develops inadequately in dyslexic readers, presumably as a result of a deviant interactive specialization of neural systems for processing auditory and visual linguistic inputs.”
§ Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children > Abstract
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although various other factors may play a role as well (Livingstone et al., 1991;Tallal et al., 1993;Stein and Walsh, 1997;Nicolson et al., 2001), impaired phonological awareness constitutes the most common behavioural explanation for reading failure (Ramus, 2003).”
§ Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ramus, 2003 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For all independent variables the variance inflation factor was between 1.05 and 2.29 and hence multi co-linearity was considered of no concern for the present model.”
§ Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children > fMRI data analysis and statistics
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The groups were matched for educational level, age, handedness and IQ, (585, Wechsler Intelligence Scale estimated IQ within 1 SD of norm) and were tested on various measures for reading status using a standard test battery (Blomert and Vaessen, 2009).”
§ Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children > Methods Participants
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Blomert and Vaessen, 2009
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Depending on the specificity of the contrast, multisubject statistical maps were corrected for multiple comparisons using the false-discovery rate (Genovese et al., 2002) or cluster-size thresholding (Forman et al., 1995;Goebel et al., 2006).”
§ Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children > fMRI data analysis and statistics
What the sources say
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Successful acquisition of letter-speech sound associations, in turn, has been theorized to be critical for the development of fluent reading skills by impacting the early phases of literacy acquisition (Bradley and Bryant, 1983;Ehri, 2005).”
§ Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Bradley and Bryant, 1983
- Not checked yetcites Ehri, 2005
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Moreover, deviant patterns of activation in frontal cortex are reported in some but not all child fMRI studies (Maisog et al., 2008;Gabrieli, 2009).”
§ Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children > Introduction
What the sources say
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“This reduced integration was directly associated with reduced auditory processing of speech sounds, which in turn predicted performance on phonological tasks.”
§ Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Blau et al., 2009 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For GLM4 (i.e. the interaction between 'multisensory condition' and 'reading status'), an initial voxel-level threshold was set to P50.01 (t = 5.1) uncorrected resulting in a cluster level of 115 mm 3 (four contiguous voxels) after 1000 iterations and a corresponding corrected false-positive probability of 5% or less.”
§ Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children > fMRI data analysis and statistics
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Specific reading disorder (or developmental dyslexia), which affects $4-10% of the population (Esser et al., 1990;Shaywitz et al., 1990;Blomert, 2005), is characterized by persistent difficulties in reading and/or spelling that are unexpected in relation to age, motivation or other cognitive abilities (Lyon et al., 2003).”
§ Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Lyon et al., 2003
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For GLM5 (i.e. the direct comparisons between control and dyslexic readers on the auditory or visual condition), an initial voxel-level threshold was set to P50.01 (t = 2.5) uncorrected, resulting in a minimum cluster of 168 mm 3 (five contiguous voxels) at a false-positive probability of 5% or less.”
§ Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children > fMRI data analysis and statistics
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“However, the first critical step in reading development and the focus of most early reading instruction is to learn the correspondences between visual letters and auditory units of speech (speech sounds) (Ehri, 2005).”
§ Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ehri, 2005
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Dyslexic subjects were recruited via the Dutch Regional Institute for Dyslexia and diagnosed using an extensive, standardized cognitive-behavioural test procedure.”
§ Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children > Methods Participants
plainn = 18- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This suggests that letter-speech sound integration is an emergent property of learning to read that develops inadequately in dyslexic readers, presumably as a result of a deviant interactive specialization of neural systems for processing auditory and visual linguistic inputs.”
§ Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children > Conclusion
hedgedconditionaln = 34- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These correlations turned out to be non-significant when the factor reading group was partialled out indicating that they indeed reflect an effect of reading ability.”
§ Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children > Multisensory processing of letters and speech sounds
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While these linear regression results should be treated with caution because of the small sample size of neuroimaging studies”
§ Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children > Relation between unisensory and multisensory effects
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“showing that a deficit in letter-speech sound integration is an emergent property of learning to read and not the result of a lifetime of reading difficulties”
§ Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children > Multisensory processing of letters and speech sounds
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Blau et al., 2009 source
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Faster processing is one of the main indices of automation for a cognitive process.
“Based on the assumption that faster processing is one of the main indices for the automation of a cognitive process (Schneider and Chein, 2003)”
The paper relies on this without support.
The selected age range is the earliest point at which reading disabilities are typically diagnosed.
“Importantly, the selected age range coincides with the earliest time in development at which reading disabilities are typically diagnosed and hence one of the earliest possible time-points to investigate the neurocognitive basis of letterspeech sound integration in dyslexia.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“The process of shaping the responses in LOTS is likely to be guided, initially, by phonological and multisensory integration regions in posterior STS and inferior parietal cortex (Blau et al., 2010; Blau, van Atteveldt, Ekkebus, Goebel, & Blomert, 2009).”
From The Development of Cortical Sensitivity to Visual Word Forms (2011) · cites this paper as Blau et al., 2010
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children > Conclusion
“aSTG = anterior superior temporal sulcus”
§ Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children > Unisensory activations
“Dyslexic children showed weaker activity for processing speech sounds in the anterior superior temporal gyrus”
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
How Learning to Read Changes the Cortical Networks for Vision and Language
Dehaene, S., Pegado, F., Braga, L. W., Ventura, P., Filho, G. N., Jobert, A., Dehaene‐Lambertz, G., Kolinsky, R., Morais, J., & Cohen, L. (2010) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1194140 · Cited by 1,378
The Interactive Account of ventral occipitotemporal contributions to reading
Price, C. J., & Devlin, J. T. (2011) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2011.04.001 · Cited by 712
Peterson, R. L., & Pennington, B. F. (2015) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032814-112842 · Cited by 748
A Causal Link between Visual Spatial Attention and Reading Acquisition
Franceschini, S., Gori, S., Ruffino, M., Pedrolli, K., & Facoetti, A. (2012) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2012.03.013 · Cited by 528
“Attentional orienting guides cross-modal integration that allows the selective learning of relevant letter-to-speech sound correspondence while suppressing the irrelevant ones [6–8, 42].”
InfluentialMeta-analyzing brain dysfunctions in dyslexic children and adults
Richlan, F., Kronbichler, M., & Wimmer, H. (2011) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.02.040 · Cited by 466
“In addition to the 17 studies included in our previous meta-analysis, we identified 4 recent studies with children (Blau et al., 2010; Meyler et al., 2008; Schulz et al., 2009; van der Mark et al., 2009) and 2 with adults (Blau et al., 2009; Richlan et al., 2010).”
InfluentialSensory theories of developmental dyslexia: three challenges for research
Goswami, U. (2014) · Nature reviews. Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn3836 · Cited by 475
Martin, A., Schurz, M., Kronbichler, M., & Richlan, F. (2015) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.22749 · Cited by 378
“Both dyslexic children and dyslexic adults were found to exhibit left STG dysfunctions during letter-speech sound integration (Blau et al., 2009, 2010). Recently, combining multivoxel pattern analysis and functional and structural connectivity analysis, Boets et al. (2013) reported that the problem of dyslexic readers…”
BackgroundInfluentialChristopher, M. E., Miyake, A., Keenan, J. M., Pennington, B. F., DeFries, J. C., Wadsworth, S. J., Willcutt, E. G., & Olson, R. K. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/a0027375 · Cited by 390
“Recent findings from Blau et al. (2010) and Byrne et al. (2011) suggest that individuals with reading disabilities struggle with the automatic mapping between graphemes and phonemes supporting the importance of this type of associative learning for successful reading.”
BackgroundWallace, M. T., & Stevenson, R. A. (2014) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2014.08.005 · Cited by 361
Blomert, L. (2010) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.11.003 · Cited by 295
“However, the level of activity in the overall network of the dyslexic readers was reduced in comparison to typical readers (Blau et al., 2010).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationStructural abnormalities in the dyslexic brain: A meta‐analysis of voxel‐based morphometry studies
Richlan, F., Kronbichler, M., & Wimmer, H. (2012) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.22127 · Cited by 270
“Dyslexic underactivation of this region in response to demands on letter-speech sound integration was interpreted as resulting from a failure to develop neural systems specialized for efficient interactive processing of auditory and visual linguistic inputs (Blau et al., 2010).”
BackgroundStructural brain alterations associated with dyslexia predate reading onset
Raschle, N. M., Chang, M., & Gaab, N. (2010) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.09.055 · Cited by 238
“deficits in letter sound integration within the temporal-parietal network (Blau et al., 2009; Blau et al., 2010).”
BackgroundGori, S., & Facoetti, A. (2015) · Journal of Vision · doi:10.1167/15.1.8 · Cited by 254
Learning to Read Improves the Structure of the Arcuate Fasciculus
de Schotten, M. T., Cohen, L., Amemiya, E., Braga, L. W., & Dehaene, S. (2012) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhs383 · Cited by 241
Linkersdörfer, J., Lonnemann, J., Lindberg, S. I., Hasselhorn, M., & Fiebach, C. J. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0043122 · Cited by 206
“Therefore, we included the 17 published papers [42–58] from Richlan et al.”
The Development of Cortical Sensitivity to Visual Word Forms
Ben-Shachar, M., Dougherty, R. F., Deutsch, G. K., & Wandell, B. A. (2011) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.2011.21615 · Cited by 190
“The process of shaping the responses in LOTS is likely to be guided, initially, by phonological and multisensory integration regions in posterior STS and inferior parietal cortex (Blau et al., 2010; Blau, van Atteveldt, Ekkebus, Goebel, & Blomert, 2009).”
BackgroundZiegler, J. C., Pech‐Georgel, C., Dufau, S., & Grainger, J. (2010) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2010.00983.x · Cited by 197
“This hypothesis receives strong support from recent neuroimaging studies showing fundamental deficits in letter–sound integration in dyslexia (Blau et al., 2009, 2010).”
BackgroundResultHome reading environment and brain activation in preschool children listening to stories
Hutton, J. S., Horowitz-Kraus, T., Mendelsohn, A. L., DeWitt, T., Holland, S. K., & the C-MIND Authorship Consortium (2015) · Pediatrics · doi:10.1542/peds.2015-0359 · Cited by 189
The Long Road to Automation: Neurocognitive Development of Letter–Speech Sound Processing
Froyen, D., Bonte, M. L., van Atteveldt, N., & Blomert, L. (2008) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.2009.21061 · Cited by 184
Self-citationMonzalvo, K., Fluss, J., Billard, C., Dehaene, S., & Dehaene‐Lambertz, G. (2012) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.02.035 · Cited by 176
Neural Correlates of Multisensory Perceptual Learning
Powers, A. R., Hevey, M. A., & Wallace, M. T. (2012) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.6138-11.2012 · Cited by 173
“…also exhibit altered BOLD activity in pSTS compared with typical-reading controls during auditory and visual nonword rhyming (Rumsey et al., 1992; Shaywitz et al., 2002), pseudo-word processing (Brunswick et al., 1999; Paulesu et al., 2001), and letter-word sound matching (Blau et al., 2010).”
BackgroundPugh, K. R., Landi, N., Preston, J. L., Mencl, W. E., Austin, A. C., Sibley, D. E., Fulbright, R. K., Seidenberg, M. S., Grigorenko, E. L., Constable, R. T., et al. (2012) · Brain and Language · doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2012.04.004 · Cited by 156
“Moreover, a recent study by Blau et al. (2010) examining high-risk beginning readers (age 6) who were undergoing a training program that reinforced graphemeto-phoneme mapping skills showed that activation of the left OT depended on these trained skills (see Brem et al. (2010) for similar findings).”
BackgroundMartin, A., Kronbichler, M., & Richlan, F. (2016) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.23202 · Cited by 167
“Dyslexic children were found to exhibit underactivation in this region in response to demands on letter-speech sound integration [Blau et al., 2010].”
BackgroundMultisensory Integration as a Window into Orderly and Disrupted Cognition and Communication
Wallace, M. T., Woynaroski, T. G., & Stevenson, R. A. (2019) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010419-051112 · Cited by 174
“Specifically, a number of studies point toward the superior temporal sulcus and the larger temporoparietal region, a known hub of multisensory integration, as sites of disruption in persons with reading disorders (e.g., Blau et al. 2010, Rüsseler et al. 2018).”
BackgroundDyscalculia and dyslexia in adults: cognitive bases of comorbidity
Wilson, A. J., Andrewes, S. G., Struthers, H., Rowe, V. M., Bogdanovic, R., & Waldie, K. E. (2015) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2014.11.017 · Cited by 144
Elliott, J., & Gibbs, S. (2012) · Newcastle University ePrints (Newcastle Univesity) · doi:10.25405/ncl.34175697 · Cited by 131
Froyen, D., Willems, G., & Blomert, L. (2010) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2010.01007.x · Cited by 128
Self-citationMascheretti, S., Luca, A. D., Trezzi, V., Peruzzo, D., Nordio, A., Marino, C., & Arrigoni, F. (2017) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/tp.2016.240 · Cited by 148
Multisensory Integration and Child Neurodevelopment
Dionne-Dostie, E., Paquette, N., Lassonde, M. C., & Gallagher, A. (2015) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci5010032 · Cited by 157
“Reduced congruency between letters and speech sounds in children with dyslexia are likely to indicate less successful letter-speech sound integration [132].”
BackgroundResultInfluentialAtypical Sulcal Pattern in Children with Developmental Dyslexia and At-Risk Kindergarteners
Im, K., Raschle, N. M., Smith, S. A., Grant, P. E., & Gaab, N. (2015) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhu305 · Cited by 122
“chosen in particular since previous studies have reported correlations between brain alterations in parieto-temporal and occipitotemporal regions and the CTOPP Elision and TOWRE subtests (Breier et al. 2003; Kronbichler et al. 2006; 2008; Blau et al. 2010; Raschle, Zuk, Gaab 2012; Pugh et al. 2013; Richlan et al. 2013…”
MethodClayton, F. J., West, G., Sears, C., Hulme, C., & Lervåg, A. (2019) · Scientific Studies of Reading · doi:10.1080/10888438.2019.1622546 · Cited by 116
“Most studies that support this hypothesis are concurrent ERP or fMRI studies comparing lettersound processing in small groups of children or adults with dyslexia, to typically developing readers matched for age (Bakos, Landerl, Bartling, Schulte-Körne, & Moll, 2017; Blau et al., 2010; Blau, van Atteveldt, Ekkebus, Goe…”
BackgroundCortical Signatures of Dyslexia and Remediation: An Intrinsic Functional Connectivity Approach
Koyama, M. S., Martino, A. D., Kelly, C. A. M., Jutagir, D. R., Sunshine, J. M., Schwartz, S. J., Castellanos, F. X., & Milham, M. P. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0055454 · Cited by 111
Functional neuroanatomy of developmental dyslexia: the role of orthographic depth
Richlan, F. (2014) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00347 · Cited by 106
“, speech sounds and letters) has to be integrated (e.g., van Atteveldt et al., 2004; Blau et al., 2010).”
BackgroundGori, S., & Facoetti, A. (2013) · Vision Research · doi:10.1016/j.visres.2013.11.011 · Cited by 118
“Another fMRI study by Blau et al. (2010) in children with DD supports the view that letter-to-speech sound integration is an emergent property of learning to read that develops weakly in individuals with DD. DD readers did not suppress STC activity to incongruent letter-speech sound pairs,…”
Centanni, T. M., Booker, A. B., Sloan, A. M., Chen, F., Maher, B. J., Carraway, R. S., Khodaparast, N., Rennaker, R. L., LoTurco, J. J., & Kilgard, M. P. (2013) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bht028 · Cited by 102
Impairments of multisensory integration and cross-sensory learning as pathways to dyslexia
Hahn, N., Foxe, J. J., & Molholm, S. (2014) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.09.007 · Cited by 109
Blomert, L., & Willems, G. (2010) · Dyslexia · doi:10.1002/dys.405 · Cited by 99
Self-citationApplying a network framework to the neurobiology of reading and dyslexia
Bailey, S., Aboud, K. S., Nguyen, T. Q., & Cutting, L. E. (2018) · Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders · doi:10.1186/s11689-018-9251-z · Cited by 97
Discrete neural substrates underlie complementary audiovisual speech integration processes
Stevenson, R. A., VanDerKlok, R. M., Pisoni, D. B., & James, T. W. (2010) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.12.063 · Cited by 105
“…al., 2009; Gervais et al., 2004; Mongillo et al., 2008; Pearl et al., 2009; Pelphrey and Carter, 2008a,b; Ross et al., 2007; Smith and Bennetto, 2007; Surguladze et al., 2001; Szycik et al., 2009) and a reduction of effects of congruency in mSTC and auditory brain regions (Blau et al., 2010, 2009).”
Neural signatures of phonological deficits in Chinese developmental dyslexia
Cao, F., Yan, X., Wang, Z., Liu, Y., Wang, J., Spray, G. J., & Deng, Y. (2016) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.11.051 · Cited by 94
“Reduced activation was found in the bilateral STG (McCrory et al., 2000; Blau et al., 2010; Kast et al., 2011; Pecini et al., 2011; Paulesu et al., 2014), which is associated with phonological representation (Bookheimer and Dapretto, 1996; Fiez et al.”
BackgroundSpatial and temporal attention in developmental dyslexia
Ruffino, M., Gori, S., Boccardi, D., Molteni, M., & Facoetti, A. (2014) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00331 · Cited by 110
“Emerging evidence suggested that DD could arise from a more basic cross-modal letter-to-speech sound integration deficit (e.g., Blau et al., 2009, 2010; Dehaene et al., 2010; see Blomert, 2011, for a recent review).”
BackgroundThe level of audiovisual print–speech integration deficits in dyslexia
Kronschnabel, J., Brem, S., Maurer, U., & Brandeis, D. (2014) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2014.07.024 · Cited by 98
Possible roles for fronto-striatal circuits in reading disorder
Hancock, R., Richlan, F., & Hoeft, F. (2016) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.10.025 · Cited by 88
The time course of reading processes in children with and without dyslexia: an ERP study
Hasko, S., Groth, K., Bruder, J., Bartling, J., & Schulte‐Körne, G. (2013) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00570 · Cited by 101
“…correspondence rules due to an underspecification of phonological representations, an impaired access to these phonological representations (Ramus and Szenkovits, 2008) or a deficient association of letters and speech sounds (Blau et al., 2010; Froyen et al., 2011; for review see Blomert, 2011).”
BackgroundHow reading acquisition changes children’s spoken language network
Monzalvo, K., & Dehaene‐Lambertz, G. (2013) · Brain and Language · doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2013.10.009 · Cited by 103
“…STS is classically involved in the reading system (Dehaene, 2009) and is a site of integration of sounds and letters (Blau, van Atteveldt, Ekkebus, Goebel, & Blomert, 2009; Blau et al., 2010; Froyen, Bonte, van Atteveldt, & Blomert, 2009; van Atteveldt, Formisano, Goebel, & Blomert, 2004).”
BackgroundReilhac, C., Peyrin, C., Démonet, J., & Valdois, S. (2012) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.12.010 · Cited by 99
“Involvement of the left inferior frontal gyrus (for phonological short-term memory and phonological processing; Dufor, Serniclaes, Sprenger-Charolles, & Démonet, 2007; Heim, Eulitz, & Elbert, 2003), the left superior temporal gyrus (for speech sound analysis and letter-sound mapping; Blau et al., 2010; Brambati et al.…”
Yamada, Y., Stevens, C., Dow, M. W., Harn, B., Chard, D. J., & Neville, H. J. (2010) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.10.057 · Cited by 87
“…with young children report differential activations to single letters in the visual word form area for dyslexic and non-dyslexic children or for typically developing pre-schoolers before and after a sensori-motor training (i.e., practice writing letters and words) (Blau et al., 2010; James, 2010).”
Chyl, K., Kossowski, B., Dębska, A., Łuniewska, M., Banaszkiewicz, A., Zelechowska, A., Frost, S. J., Mencl, W., Wypych, M., Marchewka, A., et al. (2017) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12774 · Cited by 73
“…as STS and STG have been found to preferentially respond to converging multisensory input (Van Atteveldt, Formisano, Goebel, & Blomert, 2004) and show reduced activation in dyslexic compared to control children and adults (Blau, van Atteveldt, Ekkebus, Goebel, & Blomert, 2009; Blau et al., 2010).”
Orthographic processing deficits in developmental dyslexia: Beyond the ventral visual stream
Boros, M., Anton, J., Pech-Georgel, C., Grainger, J., Szwed, M., & Ziegler, J. (2016) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.01.014 · Cited by 76
“Ventral stream deficits We found the VWFA to be underactivated in dyslexic children, a finding that has been previously reported in several studies (Blau et al., 2010; Schulz et al., 2009; Shaywitz et al., 2002; van der Mark et al., 2009).”
BackgroundResultMulti-sensory learning and learning to read
Blomert, L., & Froyen, D. (2010) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2010.06.025 · Cited by 86
Self-citationPrint-speech convergence predicts future reading outcomes in early readers
Preston, J., Molfese, P., Frost, S. J., Mencl, W., Fulbright, R., Hoeft, F., Landi, N., Shankweiler, D., & Pugh, K. (2015) · Psychology Science · doi:10.1177/0956797615611921 · Cited by 75
The Functional Neuroanatomy of Developmental Dyslexia Across Languages and Writing Systems
Richlan, F. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00155 · Cited by 89
Raschle, N. M., Stering, P. L., Meissner, S. N., & Gaab, N. (2013) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bht104 · Cited by 70
“Neuroimaging data implicates a left-hemispheric specialized reading network in older children and adults (Pugh et al. 2001), which is disrupted in individuals with DD (Temple et al. 2001; Shaywitz et al. 2002; Maurer et al. 2007; Blau et al. 2010).”
Žarić, G., González, G. F., Tijms, J., van der Molen, M. W., Blomert, L., & Bonte, M. L. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0110337 · Cited by 70
“Moreover activity in this region has been found to scale with interindividual differences in audiovisual speech perception (McGurk effect) in typically reading children and adults [73,81] and to show reduced letter-speech sound integration in dyslexic children [15].”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSelf-citationNash, H. M., Gooch, D., Hulme, C., Mahajan, Y., McArthur, G. M., Steinmetzger, K., & Snowling, M. J. (2016) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12423 · Cited by 69
A lab-controlled simulation of a letter–speech sound binding deficit in dyslexia
Aravena, S., Snellings, P., Tijms, J., & van der Molen, M. W. (2013) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2013.03.009 · Cited by 69
“A dearth of research that has been counterbala nced by an increasing number 86 of studies published during recent years (e.g., Blau et al., 2010; Blomert & Vaessen, 2009; Brem et al., 87 2010; Froyen, Bonte, Van Atteveldt, & Blomert, 2009 ).”
BackgroundCentral auditory disorders: toward a neuropsychology of auditory objects
Goll, J. C., Crutch, S. J., & Warren, J. D. (2010) · Current Opinion in Neurology · doi:10.1097/wco.0b013e32834027f6 · Cited by 65
Karipidis, I. I., Pleisch, G., Röthlisberger, M., Hofstetter, C., Dornbierer, D., Stämpfli, P., & Brem, S. (2016) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.23437 · Cited by 63
“In contrast, adults and schoolchildren with dyslexia do not demonstrate the congruency effect found in normal readers, indicating a deviant interactive specialization of neural networks for automatic integration and processing of auditory and visual linguistic inputs [Blau et al., 2009, 2010].”
BackgroundResultInfluentialPleisch, G., Karipidis, I. I., Brauchli, C., Röthlisberger, M., Hofstetter, C., Stämpfli, P., Walitza, S., & Brem, S. (2019) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.01.046 · Cited by 67
“, 2009) one study showed that the activation to single letters in the bilateral fusiform gyri of reading-impaired school children was lower than in typical readers (Blau et al., 2010).”
Centanni, T. M., Norton, E. S., Ozernov‐Palchik, O., Park, A. T., Beach, S. D., Halverson, K. K., Gaab, N., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2019) · NeuroImage Clinical · doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2019.101715 · Cited by 60
“For those children who advance to reading impairment, poor auditory processing of speech sounds may influence early abnormal fusiform responses to the corresponding letters (Blau et al., 2010; Centanni et al., 2018b; Desroches et al., 2010; Hornickel and Kraus, 2013; Wang et al., 2018).”
BackgroundValdois, S., Lassus‐Sangosse, D., & Lobier, M. (2012) · Dyslexia · doi:10.1002/dys.1437 · Cited by 62
Karipidis, I. I., Pleisch, G., Brandeis, D., Roth, A. C., Röthlisberger, M., Schneebeli, M., Walitza, S., & Brem, S. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-24909-8 · Cited by 60
González, G. F., Žarić, G., Tijms, J., Bonte, M. L., Blomert, L., & van der Molen, M. W. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0143914 · Cited by 58
“Notably, this deviant processing of letters and speech sounds in these multisensory areas has been reported in dyslexic children even if they attained adequate knowledge of letter-speech sound correspondences [30,39].”
InfluentialSelf-citationLinks between temporal acuity and multisensory integration across life span.
Stevenson, R. A., Baum, S. H., Krueger, J., NEWHOUSE, P. A., & Wallace, M. T. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037/xhp0000424 · Cited by 69
“…Flowers, Wood, & Wallace, 2005; Van Ingelghem et al., 2001; Wallace & Stevenson, 2014), and likewise exhibit reduced benefit from audiovisual integration (Vera Blau et al., 2010; V. Blau et al., 2009; Hahn, Foxe, & Molholm, 2014; Hairston et al., 2005; Harrar et al., 2014; Barry E Stein, 2012).”
BackgroundNazari, M. A., Mosanezhad, E., Hashemi, T., & Jahan, A. (2012) · Clinical EEG and Neuroscience · doi:10.1177/1550059412451880 · Cited by 55
“Children with reading disability have difficulties in acquiring letter–speech sound associations and also in recognizing and manipulating the sound structure of language, an ability referred to as phonological awareness.(2) It is assumed that the planum temporale (PT) and Heschle gyrus are involved in phonological awa…”
BackgroundEducational neuroscience: The early years
McCandliss, B. D. (2010) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1003431107 · Cited by 55
Deep Learning Applications for Dyslexia Prediction
Alqahtani, N. D., Alzahrani, B. A., & Ramzan, M. S. (2023) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app13052804 · Cited by 60
“…dyslexia,” during the reading, fMRI displays paralysis of three regions that are concerned with language production and grasping (Geschwind’s, Wernicke’s, and Broca’s territory) [8]. that are concerned with language production and grasping (Geschwind’s, Wernicke’s, and Broca’s territory) [8].”
BackgroundVandermosten, M., Correia, J., Vanderauwera, J., Wouters, J. M., Ghesquière, P., & Bonte, M. L. (2019) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12857 · Cited by 55
Widmann, A., Schröger, E., Tervaniemi, M. H., Pakarinen, S., & Kujala, T. (2012) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00060 · Cited by 56
“…our understanding of dyslexia as already suggested Frontiers in Psychology | Language Sciences March 2012 | Volume 3 | Article 60 | 10 by other authors (e.g., Laasonen et al., 2000; Kujala et al., 2001; Lyytinen et al., 2007; Blau et al., 2010; Loo et al., 2010; Blomert, 2011; Froyen et al., 2011).”
BackgroundResultNRSN1 associated grey matter volume of the visual word form area reveals dyslexia before school
Skeide, M. A., Kraft, I., Müller, B., Schaadt, G., Neef, N. E., Bräuer, J., Wilcke, A., Kirsten, H., Boltze, J., & Friederici, A. D. (2016) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/aww153 · Cited by 55
Cerebellar function in children with and without dyslexia during single word processing
Ashburn, S. M., Flowers, D. L., Napoliello, E. M., & Eden, G. F. (2019) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.24792 · Cited by 52
“Blau et al., 2010; J. R. Booth, Bebko, et al., 2007; Cao, Bitan, Chou, Burman, & Booth, 2006; Hoeft et al., 2006; Schulz et al., 2009; van der Mark et al., 2009). Only two found differences in cerebellar activation; specifically these studies reported more cerebellar activation in dyslexia in comparison to controls (M…”
ResultInfluentialHolloway, I. D., van Atteveldt, N., Blomert, L., & Ansari, D. (2013) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bht347 · Cited by 51
Self-citationBrain-potential analysis of visual word recognition in dyslexics and typically reading children
González, G. F., arić, G. Å. ⁄., Tijms, J., Bonte, M. L., Blomert, L., & van der Molen, M. W. (2014) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00474 · Cited by 51
Self-citationAudiovisual speech integration in the superior temporal region is dysfunctional in dyslexia
Ye, Z., Rüsseler, J., Gerth, I., & Münte, T. F. (2017) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2017.05.017 · Cited by 51
“The second ROI was centered at [MNI: -42 -30 13] from Blau et al. (2010) (see Introduction).”
InfluentialRichlan, F. (2019) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2019.00021 · Cited by 58
“, 2009) and with dyslexic children (Blau et al., 2010).”
Savill, N. J., & Thierry, G. (2011) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2011.02.012 · Cited by 47
“…activation in left occipitotemporal areas involved in orthographic identification and integration, as shown by functional brain imaging studies (Blau et al., 2010; Brunswick et al., 1999; Cao et al., 2006; Kronbichler et al., 2006; Liu et al., 2010; McCrory et al., 2005; Richlan et al., 2010;…”
Atypical Structural Asymmetry of the Planum Temporale is Related to Family History of Dyslexia
Vanderauwera, J., Altarelli, I., Vandermosten, M., Vos, A. D., Wouters, J. M., & Ghesquière, P. (2016) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhw348 · Cited by 47
“Finally, reduced activation in the planum temporale has been observed in 9- to 10-year-old children with dyslexia for processing speech sounds and mapping phonemes to graphemes (Blau et al. 2010)—yet no direct information on functional asymmetry patterns is available in that study.”
BackgroundMcNorgan, C., Randazzo-Wagner, M., & Booth, J. R. (2013) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00388 · Cited by 46
“Impaired phonological awareness is commonly cited as the source of reading impairment (Ramus, 2003), though numerous studies show that a failure to automatize letter-sound associations greatly contribute to reading failure (Vellutino et al., 2004; Ehri, 2005; Blau et al., 2010).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialFernandes, T., Vale, A. P., Martins, B., Morais, J., & Kolinsky, R. (2013) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12102 · Cited by 46
Reading as functional coordination: not recycling but a novel synthesis
Lachmann, T., & van Leeuwen, C. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01046 · Cited by 44
“In skilled readers letters are represented for cross-modal usage (Froyen et al., 2008; Blau et al., 2010; Blomert, 2011), not as a purely visual item, but as connected with auditory information.”
BackgroundReading-induced shifts of perceptual speech representations in auditory cortex
Bonte, M. L., Correia, J., Keetels, M., Vroomen, J., & Formisano, E. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-017-05356-3 · Cited by 45
“…the amplitude of unimodal (speech) and crossmodal (text-speech) responses in this region has been found to scale with individual differences in phonological and/or reading skills in typical readers 7, 15, 16 and pre-readers 17 , and to show an overall reduction in dyslexic readers 14, 18, 19 .”
InfluentialVanderauwera, J., Vandermosten, M., Dell’Acqua, F., Wouters, J. M., & Ghesquière, P. (2015) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.22848 · Cited by 45
“…to be involved in phonological aspects of reading [Booth et al., 2002; for a metaanalysis see Vigneau et al., 2006] and in multimodal integration [Blau et al., 2009, 2010; Booth et al., 2002; Schlaggar and McCandliss, 2007; van Atteveldt et al., 2007] and is also related to reading performance…”
BackgroundAn ALE meta‐analysis on the audiovisual integration of speech signals
Erickson, L. C., Heeg, E., Rauschecker, J. P., & Turkeltaub, P. E. (2014) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.22572 · Cited by 45
Kast, M., Bezzola, L., Jäncke, L., & Meyer, M. E. (2011) · Brain and Language · doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2011.04.002 · Cited by 47
“Furthermore, dyslexic compared to nondyslexic children have shown reduced neural integration in the bilateral auditory areas, namely, the planum temporale and Heschl’s sulcus, as well as the STS (Blau et al., 2010).”
BackgroundVicario, C., & Nitsche, M. (2013) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00139 · Cited by 47
“Blau et al. (2010) have also shown reduced unisensory responses to letters in the fusiform gyrus and anterior superior temporal gyrus (STG) of dyslexic children.”
Gullick, M. M., & Booth, J. R. (2014) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_00581 · Cited by 40
“Most relevant to the current study, Blau and van Atteveldt have demonstrated that activity in the left pSTS is increased for passive simultaneous bimodal letter–sound presentations in both typically developing adults and children, especially for congruent trials (Blau et al., 2010; Blau, van Atteveldt, Ekkebus, Goebel…”
BackgroundInfluentialStructural and functional abnormality of the putamen in children with developmental dyslexia
Wang, Z., Yan, X., Liu, Y., Spray, G. J., Deng, Y., & Cao, F. (2018) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2018.07.014 · Cited by 38
Wang, F., Karipidis, I. I., Pleisch, G., González, G. F., & Brem, S. (2020) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2020.00289 · Cited by 41
Pollack, C., Luk, G., & Christodoulou, J. A. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00191 · Cited by 41
“…that the specific posterior brain regions that are recruited or the degree of activation of these regions is dependent on age, reading experience and tasks (Pugh et al., 2000; Shaywitz et al., 2002; McCandliss and Noble, 2003; Blau et al., 2010; Maurer et al., 2011; Richlan et al., 2011).”
BackgroundPlanum temporale morphology in children with developmental dyslexia
Bloom, J. S., García-Barrera, M. A., Miller, C. J., Miller, S. R., & Hynd, G. W. (2013) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2013.05.012 · Cited by 47
“The function of the PT, as demonstrated by functional imaging, may be related to acoustic processing, phonological decoding, and language tasks (Blau et al., 2010; Dahaene et al., 2010).”
BackgroundEffects of lexicality and word frequency on brain activation in dyslexic readers
Heim, S., Wehnelt, A., Grande, M., Huber, W., & Amunts, K. (2012) · Brain and Language · doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2011.12.005 · Cited by 38
Audio-visual speech perception in adult readers with dyslexia: an fMRI study
Rüsseler, J., Ye, Z., Gerth, I., Szycik, G. R., & Münte, T. F. (2017) · Brain Imaging and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11682-017-9694-y · Cited by 38
“Independent component analysis”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialDevelopment of an Eco-Biodevelopmental Model of Emergent Literacy Before Kindergarten
Hutton, J., DeWitt, T. G., Hoffman, L., Horowitz‐Kraus, T., & KLASS, P. E. (2021) · Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine · doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2020.6709 · Cited by 43
How symbols transform brain function: A review in memory of Leo Blomert
van Atteveldt, N., & Ansari, D. (2014) · Trends in Neuroscience and Education · doi:10.1016/j.tine.2014.04.001 · Cited by 35
Andres, A., Cardy, J. O., & Joanisse, M. F. (2010) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2010.09.012 · Cited by 36
“Recent evidence also suggests that individuals with dyslexia show a persistent pattern of insensitivity to AV congruency, which might relate to their underlying difficulties with pairing written and oral language (Blau et al., 2009, 2010).”
BackgroundGonzález, G. F., Žari'c, G., Tijms, J., Bonte, M., Blomert, L., Leppänen, P., & van der Molen, M. J. W. (2016) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2016.05.001 · Cited by 34
“Importantly, dysregulation of both the temporo-parietal and occipito-temporal systems have been found in dyslexics (Blau et al., 2010; Brunswick, McCrory, Price, Frith, & Frith, 1999; Helenius, Tarkiainen, Cornelissen, Hansen, & Salmelin, 1999; Paulesu et al., 2001; Shaywitz & Shaywitz, 2008;…”
BackgroundSelf-citationLaw, J., Vos, A. D., Vanderauwera, J., Wouters, J. M., Ghesquière, P., & Vandermosten, M. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01393 · Cited by 35
Brain Mechanisms Underlying Visuo-Orthographic Deficits in Children With Developmental Dyslexia
Cao, F., Yan, X., Spray, G. J., Liu, Y., & Deng, Y. (2018) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2018.00490 · Cited by 35
“The left temporo-parietal region has been associated with phonological representation and the conversion between orthography and phonology (McCrory et al., 2000; Blau et al., 2010; Kast et al., 2011; Pecini et al., 2011; Paulesu et al., 2014).”
BackgroundCross-modal binding in developmental dyslexia.
Jones, M., Branigan, H. P., Parra, M. A., & Logie, R. H. (2013) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0033334 · Cited by 35
Žarić, G., González, G. F., Tijms, J., van der Molen, M. W., Blomert, L., & Bonte, M. L. (2015) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2015.00369 · Cited by 33
“Accumulating evidence from neuroimaging studies suggests reduced neural integration of letters and speech sounds in dyslexic children (Blau et al., 2010; Froyen et al., 2011; McNorgan et al., 2013; Žari ć et al., 2014) and adults (Blau et al., 2009).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Blau, V., Reithler, J., van Atteveldt, N., Seitz, J., Gerretsen, P., Goebel, R., & Blomert, L.
- Affiliations
- Maastricht University (NL)
- Venue
- Brain
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2010-01-07
- Volume
- 133
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 868-879
- ISSN
- 0006-8950 (ISSN-L)
- 1460-2156
- OpenAlex
- W2136056602
- Semantic Scholar
- 54d81053eba4f4a2c7cf39a282e8b20a9654f611
- Cited by
- 301
- References
- 56
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 25 · 2022: 16 · 2021: 19 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 20 · 2018: 26 · 2017: 18 · 2016: 24 · 2015: 21 · 2014: 23 · 2013: 20 · 2012: 23
- FWCI
- 40.89
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Brain (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Research Publications (Maastricht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- VU Research Portal (submittedVersion)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- European Commission
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Reading and Literacy Development
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neurobiology of Language and Bilingualism
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Multisensory perception and integration
- Keywords
- developmental dyslexia, reading acquisition, planum temporale, superior temporal sulcus, fusiform gyrus, audiovisual integration, reading failure, children, neural specialization
- MeSH terms
- Acoustic Stimulation, Brain, Brain Mapping, Child, Dyslexia, Female, Humans, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Male, Neural Pathways, Neuropsychological Tests, Phonetics, Photic Stimulation, Reading, Speech Perception, Visual Perception
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