Domain-specific knowledge as the “dark matter” of adult intelligence: Gf/Gc, personality and interest correlates
Abstract
An enduring controversy in intelligence theory and assessment, the argument that middle-aged adults are, on average, less intelligent than young adults, is addressed in this study. A sample of 228 educated adults between ages 21 and 62 years was given an array of tests that focused on a broad assessment of intelligence-as-knowledge, traditional estimates of fluid intelligence (Gf) and crystallized intelligence (Gc), personality, and interests. The results indicate that middle-aged adults are more knowledgeable in many domains, compared with younger adults. A coherent pattern of ability, personality, and interest relations is found. The results are consistent with a developmental perspective of intelligence that includes both traditional ability and non-ability determinants of intelligence during adulthood. A reassessment of the nature of intelligence in adulthood is provided, in the context of a lifelong learning and investment model, called PPIK, for intelligence-as-Process, Personality, Interests, and intelligence-as-Knowledge (Ackerman, 1996).
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People choose domains in which to invest time, energy, and cognitive resources to gain knowledge and experience.
“Individuals select particular areas in which they invest time, energy, and cognitive resources to gain knowledge and experience”
From Enrichment Effects on Adult Cognitive Development: Can the Functional Capacity of Older Adults Be Preserved and Enhanced? (2008) · cites this paper as Ackerman, 2000
Studies published since Ackerman and Heggestad's meta-analysis suggest a negative relationship between extraversion and intelligence.
“Several studies (Ackerman, 2000; Ackerman, Bowen, Beier, & Kanfer, 2001; Ackerman & Rolfhus, 1999; Furnham, Forde, & Cotter, 1998; Roberts, 2002; Rolfhus & Ackerman, 1999) since the meta-analysis suggest the opposite trend – a negative relationship between extraversion and intelligence.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman, 2000
In a sample of 228 students, social closeness was significantly negatively correlated with four knowledge composites (Business/law, Civics, Humanities, and Science) and with crystallized intelligence.
“As seen in Table 3, results from a sample of 228 students demonstrated that social closeness was significantly negatively correlated with four knowledge composites (Business/law, Civics, Humanities, and Science) and with crystallized intelligence.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman, 2000
Several subsequent studies by Ackerman and his colleagues, Furnham et al. (1998), and Roberts (2002) found significant negative relationships between extraversion and intelligence.
“Several subsequent studies by Ackerman and his colleagues (Ackerman, 2000; Ackerman et al., 2001; Ackerman & Rolfhus, 1999; Rolfhus & Ackerman, 1999), Furnham et al. (1998), and Roberts (2002) found significant negative relationships between extraversion and intelligence.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman, 2000
Broad measures of extraversion, such as those derived from the five factor model, may confound social closeness and social potency.
“Ackerman (2000) addressed the contradictory nature of these findings by suggesting that broad measures of extraversion, such as those derived from the five factor model, may confound social closeness and social potency (also see Tellegen, 1982).”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman, 2000
Social closeness had a greater negative association with domain knowledge than social potency, which supports separating these two aspects of extraversion.
“Social closeness had a greater negative association with domain knowledge than social potency, which supports separating these two aspects of extraversion.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman, 2000
The validity of measuring social closeness and social potency separately was maintained.
“Although the second part of the first hypothesis was not fully supported, the validity of measuring these two aspects of extraversion separately was maintained (Ackerman, 2000; Ackerman et al., 2001).”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman, 2000
The estimated effect sizes for social closeness were smaller than the estimated effect sizes for social potency.
“Consistent with past research, the estimated effect sizes for social closeness were smaller than the estimated effect sizes for social potency (Ackerman, 2000; Ackerman et al., 2001).”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman, 2000
In general, social closeness was related to intelligence traits to a greater extent than social potency.
“In general, social closeness was related to intelligence traits to a greater extent than social potency.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman, 2000
The results demonstrated a different pattern of relationships between social potency and social closeness consistent with past research (Ackerman, 2000; Ackerman et al., 2001).
“The results demonstrated a different pattern of relationships between social potency and social closeness consistent with past research (Ackerman, 2000; Ackerman et al., 2001).”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman, 2000
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- Authors
- Ackerman, P. L.
- Affiliations
- Georgia Institute of Technology (US)
- Corresponding author
- Ackerman, P. L.
- ORCID
- Ackerman, P. L.
- Venue
- The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2000-03-01
- Volume
- 55
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- P69-P84
- ISSN
- 1079-5014 (ISSN-L)
- 1758-5368
- OpenAlex
- W2145997769
- Cited by
- 206
- References
- 61
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 11 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 10 · 2015: 11 · 2014: 15 · 2013: 4 · 2012: 11
- FWCI
- 11.90
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- The Journals of Gerontology Series B (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Georgia Institute of Technology (30332)
- College of Computing
- National Institute on Aging (R01AG016648, 1R01AG16648-01)
- Air Force Office of Scientific Research (F49620)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Ego Development and Educational Practices
- Keywords
- adult intelligence, middle-aged adults, fluid intelligence, crystallized intelligence, domain knowledge, personality, interest, age differences in intelligence, lifelong learning, intelligence assessment
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Age Factors, Aged, Aging, Cognition, Culture, Educational Status, Female, Humans, Intelligence, Intelligence Tests, Male, Middle Aged, Personality
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