On the duration of the embedded phase of star formation
Open accessAbstract
Feedback from massive stars plays a key role in molecular cloud evolution. After the onset of star formation, the young stellar population is exposed by photoionization, winds, supernovae, and radiation pressure from massive stars. Recent observations of nearby galaxies have provided the evolutionary timeline between molecular clouds and exposed young stars, but the duration of the embedded phase of massive star formation is still ill-constrained. We measure how long massive stellar populations remain embedded within their natal cloud, by applying a statistical method to six nearby galaxies at $20{-}100~\mbox{${\rm ~pc}$}$ resolution, using CO, Spitzer 24$\rm \, \mu m$, and H α emission as tracers of molecular clouds, embedded star formation, and exposed star formation, respectively. We find that the embedded phase (with CO and 24$\rm \, \mu m$ emission) lasts for 2−7 Myr and constitutes $17{-}47{{\ \rm per\ cent}}$ of the cloud lifetime. During approximately the first half of this phase, the region is invisible in H α, making it heavily obscured. For the second half of this phase, the region also emits in H α and is partially exposed. Once the cloud has been dispersed by feedback, 24$\rm \, \mu m$ emission no longer traces ongoing star formation, but remains detectable for another 2−9 Myr through the emission from ambient CO-dark gas, tracing star formation that recently ended. The short duration of massive star formation suggests that pre-supernova feedback (photoionization and winds) is important in disrupting molecular clouds. The measured time-scales do not show significant correlations with environmental properties (e.g. metallicity). Future JWST observations will enable these measurements routinely across the nearby galaxy population.
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24um emission is dominated by dust heated by very young, deeply embedded massive stars and responds on timescales of only a few Myr.
“In particular, 24 µ m emission is dominated by dust heated by very young, deeply embedded massive stars and responds on timescales of only a few Myr (e.g., Kruijssen et al. 2018; Kim et al. 2021; Wainer et al. 2026)”
From The Panchromatic Hubble Andromeda Southern Treasury (PHAST). II. The Spatially Resolved Recent Star Formation History in M31 (2026) · cites this paper as Kim et al. 2021
Section 5.3 says 24 µm emission traces dust-reprocessed light from massive stars, but also reports that diffuse emission constitutes, on average, 55% of the emission; the maps mostly contain emission from young stars only after filtering. Section 4.1.2 measures the 24 µm emitting phase at 4–14 Myr, so describing the emission generally as dominated by deeply embedded stars and responsive on timescales of only a few Myr overstates the source. (LLM, conf=0.88)
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The star formation law at GMC scales in M33, the Triangulum galaxy
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Self-citationTESTING 24 μm AND INFRARED LUMINOSITY AS STAR FORMATION TRACERS FOR GALACTIC STAR-FORMING REGIONS
Vutisalchavakul, N., & Evans, N. (2013) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/765/2/129 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Structure and Dynamics of Candidate O Star Bubbles in N44
Nazé, Y., Chu, Y.-H., Guerrero, M. A., et al. (2002) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.1086/344481 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Ward, J. L., Chevance, M., Kruijssen, J. M. D., Hygate, A. P. S., Schruba, A., & Longmore, S. N. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa1977 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Evolution and Star Formation History of M33Preprint
Kang, X., Chang, R., Yin, J., et al. (2012) · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Volumetric star formation prescriptions in vertically resolved edge-on galaxies
Yim, K., Wong, T., Rand, R. J., & Schinnerer, E. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa1020 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Self-citationTheoretical modelling of two-component molecular discs in spiral galaxies
Patra, N. N. (2020) · Springer Link (Chiba Institute of Technology) · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201936483/pdf · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Theoretical modelling of two-component molecular discs in spiral galaxies
Patra, N. N. (2020) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201936483 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Structure and Dynamics of Candidate O Star Bubbles in N44Preprint
Nazé, Y., Chu, Y., Guerrero, M. A., et al. (2002) · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Haydon, D. T., Fujimoto, Y., Chevance, M., et al. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa2162 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citationObserving the Earliest Stages of Star Formation in Galaxies: 8 μm Cores in Three Edge-on Disks
Elmegreen, B. G., & Elmegreen, D. M. (2020) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab8d20 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 5
- [17]17. Chevance M. et al., 2020a, preprint (arXiv:2010.13788) · arXiv
- [53]53. Greenawalt B. E., 1998, PhD thesis, New Mexico State University
- [63]63. Hygate A. P. S., 2020, PhD thesis, Ruperto-Carola-University of Heidelberg
- [78]78. Kim J.-G., Ostriker E. C., Filippova N., 2020, preprint (arXiv:2011.07772) · arXiv
- [138]138. Sick J., Courteau S., Cuillandre J.-C., Dalcanton J., de Jong R., McDonald M., Simard D., Tully R. B., 2015, in Cappellari M., Courteau S., eds, Vol. 311, Galaxy Masses as Constraints of Formation Models, p. 82
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Wainer, T. M., Williams, B. F., Chen, Z., Lazzarini, M., Dalcanton, J. J., Bell, E. F., Goold, K., Dolphin, A., Durbin, M. J., Dubón, S. L. F., et al. (2026) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ae6db9
- Authors
- Kim, J., Chevance, M., Kruijssen, J. M. D., Schruba, A., Sandstrom, K., Barnes, A. T., Bigiel, F., Blanc, G. A., Cao, Y., Dale, D. A., Faesi, C. M., Glover, S. C. O., Grasha, K., Groves, B., Herrera, C., Klessen, R. S., Kreckel, K., Lee, J. C., Leroy, A. K., Pety, J., Querejeta, M., Schinnerer, E., Sun, J., Usero, A., Ward, J. L., & Williams, T. G.
- Affiliations
- Heidelberg University (DE)
- Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics (DE)
- University of California San Diego (US)
- University of Bonn (DE)
- Carnegie Institution for Science (US)
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (FR)
- University of Wyoming (US)
- University of Massachusetts Amherst (US)
- Australian National University (AU)
- The University of Western Australia (AU)
- Ausonius Institut de Recherche sur l'Antiquité et le Moyen age (FR)
- California Institute of Technology (US)
- The Ohio State University (US)
- Spanish National Observatory (ES)
- Max Planck Institute for Astronomy (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Kim, Jaeyeon
- ORCID
- Kim, Jaeyeon
- Chevance, Mélanie
- Kruijssen, J M Diederik
- Sandstrom, Karin
- Barnes, Ashley T
- Bigiel, Frank
- Blanc, Guillermo A
- Cao, Yixian
- Dale, Daniel A
- Faesi, Christopher M
- Glover, Simon C O
- Grasha, Kathryn
- Groves, Brent
- Herrera, Cinthya
- Klessen, Ralf S
- Kreckel, Kathryn
- Lee, Janice C
- Leroy, Adam K
- Pety, Jérôme
- Querejeta, Miguel
- Schinnerer, Eva
- Sun, Jiayi
- Usero, Antonio
- Ward, Jacob L
- Williams, Thomas G
- Venue
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2021-03-26
- Volume
- 504
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 487-509
- ISSN
- 0035-8711 (ISSN-L)
- 1365-2966
- OpenAlex
- W3108816580
- Cited by
- 95
- References
- 186
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 27 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 16
- FWCI
- 10.02
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- academic.oup.com/journals/pages/open_access/funder_policies/chorus/standard_publication_model (vor)
- Locations
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- ANU Open Research (Australian National University) (submittedVersion)
- CaltechAUTHORS (California Institute of Technology) (submittedVersion)
- UWA Profiles and Research Repository (UWA) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- HAL (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Funders
- DFG (KR4801/2-1, KR4801/1-1, KR4598/2-1)
- European Research Council (714907, 726384, 694343)
- NSF (1615105, 1615109, 1653300)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astrophysics and Star Formation Studies
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Galaxies: Formation, Evolution, Phenomena
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Stellar, planetary, and galactic studies
- Keywords
- massive star formation, molecular cloud evolution, stellar feedback, photoionization, stellar winds, cloud disruption, cloud lifetime, carbon monoxide emissions, 24 micron emission, H-alpha emission, nearby galaxies, obscured star formation
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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