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The psychological impact of COVID-19 on the mental health in the general population
Open accessAbstract
As a result of the emergence of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection in the Chinese city of Wuhan, a situation of socio-economic crisis and profound psychological distress rapidly occurred worldwide. Various psychological problems and important consequences in terms of mental health including stress, anxiety, depression, frustration, uncertainty during COVID-19 outbreak emerged progressively. This work aimed to comprehensively review the current literature about the impact of COVID-19 infection on the mental health in the general population. The psychological impact of quarantine related to COVID-19 infection has been additionally documented together with the most relevant psychological reactions in the general population related to COVID-19 outbreak. The role of risk and protective factors against the potential to develop psychiatric disorders in vulnerable individuals has been addressed as well. The main implications of the present findings have been discussed.
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“Factors such as a previous psychiatric diagnosis, isolation, financial distress, hopelessness, loneliness and uncertainty due to COVID-19 outbreaks can also increase the risk of psychiatric conditions and suicide.(Killgore et al., 2020a; Serafini et al., 2020; Xin et al., 2020; Serafini et al., 2012)”
From Younger people are more vulnerable to stress, anxiety and depression during COVID-19 pandemic: a global cross-sectional survey (2021) · cites this paper as Serafini et al., 2020
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“In contrast, resilience and perception of social support can be protective against psychiatric disorders.(Serafini et al., 2020)”
From Younger people are more vulnerable to stress, anxiety and depression during COVID-19 pandemic: a global cross-sectional survey (2021) · cites this paper as Serafini et al., 2020
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“This has led to a steep reduction in social contact which is likely to have increased experiences of loneliness and may have increased psychological distress (Barari et al., 2020; Serafini et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2020; Ellis et al., 2020).”
From Loneliness, social relationships, and mental health in adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic (2021) · cites this paper as Serafini et al., 2020
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“At the individual level, it has been noted that COVID-19 has had immense psychological consequences ranging from anxiety among school children due to prolonged closure of schools, guilt and fear among health care workers, and grief complications due to restricted mourning activities (Otanga, 2020; Serafini et al., 202…”
BackgroundLockdown as a public health measure
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MethodPsychosocial Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic in Libya: A Cross-Sectional Study
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“These restrictive measures can contribute to adverse psychosocial outcomes such as post-traumatic stress symptoms, fear of spreading the infection to family members, anger, frustration, loneliness, denial, confusion, insomnia, and extreme behaviors, including suicide (Raza et al., 2020; Serafini et al., 2020).”
BackgroundProblematic alcohol use in young adults during the COVID-19 lockdown in Italy
Laghi, F., Tata, D. D., Bianchi, D., Lonigro, A., Pompili, S., Zammuto, M., & Baiocco, R. (2021) · Psychology Health & Medicine · doi:10.1080/13548506.2021.1975785 · Cited by 10
“Several studies have observed that the COVID-19 outbreak and the home confinement imposed during the initial stage of the pandemic have had a serious impact on mental health (Rossi et al., 2020; Salari et al., 2020; Serafini et al., 2020).”
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Messman, B., Rafiuddin, H. S., Slavish, D. C., Weiss, N. H., & Contractor, A. A. (2021) · Psychological Trauma Theory Research Practice and Policy · doi:10.1037/tra0001170 · Cited by 12
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“Research shows that the pandemic has increased levels of depression, anxiety, insomnia [2,3], post-traumatic stress disorder [4], and suicide ideation amongst”
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“In another study, intense public health measures were found to be associated with increased psychosocial distress, including elevated levels of overall distress, panic, emotional disturbances, and depression (Serafini et al., 2020).”
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Forecasting cumulative COVID-19 cases in Malaysia and rising to unprecedented levels
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“The types of this psychological are varies including uncontrolled fear, boredom, confusion which is related with lockdown measures and social isolation (5).”
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Sex ratio at birth: causes of variation and narrative review of literature
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Mental health research in the Arab region in response to the COVID‐19 pandemic: a scoping review
Hassan, M., Abdelhafez, I., Ouanes, S., Al-Janahi, E., Zoghbi, Y., & Wadoo, O. (2022) · General Psychiatry · doi:10.1136/gpsych-2021-100590 · Cited by 9
“19– 31 strengths and limitations Our study is the first, to our knowledge, to have examined the scope and quality of COVID-19 mental health research in Arab countries.”
Dykens, E. M., Roof, E., Hunt-Hawkins, H., & McDonald, C. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.863999 · Cited by 9
“It is well-documented that people across the globe have experienced COVID-19 related spikes in such mental health problems as depression, anxiety, distress, loneliness and anxiety (67, 68).”
BackgroundA Visual Inquiry: Artist–Teacher Perceptions of Art Education Provision in Singapore
Heaton, R., & Kuan, S. C. L. (2022) · Studies in Art Education · doi:10.1080/00393541.2022.2050988 · Cited by 9
“In Singapore, pandemic spread is unprecedented (Tomasik et al., 2020)—sudden transitions to online and home-based learning were made, which will have resulted in psychological uncertainty, as well as social, emotional, and economic strain for families, teachers, and learners (Serafini et al., 2020).”
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“…2020), though these CONTACT Suzanne Guerin suzanne.guerin@ucd.ie Supplemental data for this article can be accessed online at https://doi.org/10.1080/09515070.2023.2186834. measures have brought about challenges and negative psychological reactions have been identified (Serafini et al., 2020).”
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Changes in anxiety and depression among public health workers during the COVID-19 pandemic response
Stone, K. W., Jagger, M. A., Horney, J. A., & Kintziger, K. W. (2023) · International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health · doi:10.1007/s00420-023-02002-6 · Cited by 8
“The COVID-19 pandemic has had a significant negative impact on mental health indicators in both the general population and healthcare workers in the United States and globally (Santarone et al. 2020; Serafini et al. 2020).”
BackgroundCoping strategies and belief in COVID ‐19 conspiracy theories
Molenda, Z., Marchlewska, M., Karakula, A., Szczepańska, D., Rogoza, M., Green, R., Cisłak, A., & Douglas, K. M. (2023) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12684 · Cited by 9
Protective Factors for Developing Cognitive Skills against Cyberattacks
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Living in the “Bubble”: Athletes' Psychological Profile During the Sambo World Championship
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Sleep Quality Among Informal Caregivers During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Cross-Sectional Study
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“Here are a few examples from the literature: ● Stress: Lakhan et al. (2020); Pandey et al. (2020); Serafini et al. (2020); Han et al. (2020) ● Violence: Devi (2020); Han et al. (2020) ● Addictions: Jemberie et al. (2020); Han et al. (2020); Kirzinger et al. (2020) ● Lack of exercise: Kaur et al.…”
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“with the direct consequences of this potentially neurotropic virus?[28-30] Everything is possible.”
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The voices of community pharmacists during the COVID-19 pandemic in Puerto Rico
Silva-Suárez, G., Alvarado, Y., Hernández-Díaz, A., Ramirez, K. R., & Colón-Pratts, F. M. (2021) · Journal of the American Pharmacists Association · doi:10.1016/j.japh.2021.07.013 · Cited by 8
Uwadiale, A. Y., Cordaro, M., Brunett, K. M., Stern, M. J., & Howard, K. J. (2021) · Issues in Mental Health Nursing · doi:10.1080/01612840.2021.1975333 · Cited by 8
“For the COVID-19 pandemic, behavioral dysfunctions (e.g., appetite and/or sleep disruptions), and psychopathology including generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) and PTSD have emerged during the COVID-19 pandemic (Serafini et al., 2020).”
BackgroundHaving More Plants at Home During the Covid-19 Pandemic: Is It Just Following A Trend?
Afrianto, W. F., & Diannita, R. (2022) · JURNAL BIOLOGI TROPIS · doi:10.29303/jbt.v22i1.3245 · Cited by 10
Takahashi, T., Ota, M., Numata, Y., Kitabatake, A., Nemoto, K., Tamura, M., Ide, M., Matsuzaki, A., Kaneda, Y., & Arai, T. (2022) · Acta Neuropsychiatrica · doi:10.1017/neu.2022.7 · Cited by 8
The emotional side of post-traumatic stress reaction during COVID-19 pandemic: an Italian survey
Ferrante, G., Rossini, P. G., Rousset, S., Ostacoli, L., Piccinelli, C., Carletto, S., & Giordano, L. (2022) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-022-12749-1 · Cited by 13
“Nevertheless, the psychological impact of COVID-19 has not been fully outlined, since evidence showed this is both significant [4, 5] and small [6, 7].”
BackgroundHumer, E. C., Pieh, C., Kisler, I., Schimböck, W., & Schadenhofer, P. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19063166 · Cited by 8
Dalky, H. F., Aljawarneh, Y. M., Rajab, L. M., Almas, S., Mazemi, F. A., Ali, L. A., Abdulghani, S., & Shamsi, S. A. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph191912487 · Cited by 8
“Particularly, university students have faced intensified stress due to campus evacuations and the transition to remote learning [8].”
BackgroundAssessing the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on small and medium-sized enterprises performance
Susanty, A., Puspitasari, N. B., Bakhtiar, A., & Prasetya, F. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.927628 · Cited by 12
“, 2021; Zhao and Zhou, 2021), the worst of all its impact on the mental wellbeing of people (Ciotti et al., 2020; Elmer et al., 2020; Filipova et al., 2020; Lee, 2020; Serafini et al., 2020; Adom et al., 2021; Chaturvedi et al., 2021; Coupet et al., 2021; Das and Bhattacharyya, 2021; Deshpande and Mhatre, 2021; Hannam…”
BackgroundButton, P., Fallon, L., & Fowler, K. (2023) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-023-01218-y · Cited by 11
“A comprehensive review on the psychological impact of COVID19 found that the pandemic has commonly induced psychological reactions such as pervasive anxiety, fear (particularly related to contracting COVID-19), frustration, boredom, and loneliness in the general public, all of which have been shown to negatively impac…”
BackgroundGeraldina, A. M., Suen, M., & Suanrueang, P. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0285490 · Cited by 11
Lanfredi, M., Dagani, J., Geviti, A., Cosimo, F. D., Bussolati, M., Rillosi, L., Albini, D., Pizzi, M., Ghidoni, R., Fazzi, E. M., et al. (2023) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health · doi:10.1186/s13034-023-00615-w · Cited by 9
“So far, studies and surveys conducted during the pandemic consistently show the devastating impact on the general population’s mental health [27, 61, 70] and the greater vulnerability of young people to increased psychological distress, perhaps because their need for social interactions is stronger [1].”
BackgroundWeekly Emotional Changes Amidst Covid-19: Turkish Experience
Silahtaroğlu, G., Baykal, E., & Canbolat, Z. N. (2020) · Ekonomi İşletme ve Maliye Araştırmaları Dergisi · doi:10.38009/ekimad.825285 · Cited by 8
The Aftermath of COVID-19 Lockdown on Daily Life Activities in Orthopaedic Patients
Persiani, P. J., Meo, D. D., Giannini, E., Calogero, V., Varsamis, T. S., Cavallo, A. U., Martini, L., Cera, G., Coluzzi, F., & Villani, C. (2021) · Journal of Pain Research · doi:10.2147/jpr.s285814 · Cited by 9
Avoiding Crowded Places During COVID-19: Common Sense or a Complex Strategic Decision?
Stroom, M., Eichholtz, P. M. A., & Kok, N. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.700640 · Cited by 13
Exploring the impact of COVID-19 on older adults in 12-step programs
Bender, A. K., Pickard, J. G., & Webster, M. (2022) · Journal of Social Work Practice in the Addictions · doi:10.1080/1533256x.2022.2047561 · Cited by 9
“Many people reported increased levels of anxiety and depression as local and state governments imposed stay-at-home orders (McElroy et al., 2020; Serafini et al., 2020).”
BackgroundMerlo, A., Severeijns, N. R., Hendriksen, P. A., Benson, S., Scholey, A. B., Garssen, J., Bruce, G., & Verster, J. C. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19074301 · Cited by 8
Makević, A., Ilić, S., Pantović-Stefanović, M., Murić, N., Djordjević, N., & Jurišić, V. (2022) · International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction · doi:10.1016/j.ijdrr.2022.103086 · Cited by 7
“Expectedly, studies have shown that large proportion of COVID-19 patients are experiencing anxiety, depression and stress [10,11].”
Parthasarathi, A., Puvvada, R. K., Basappa, S., Krishna, M. T., & P A, M. (2022) · Wellcome Open Research · doi:10.12688/wellcomeopenres.17517.1 · Cited by 7
Reyes-Bossio, M. A., Zapparigli, E. J. L., Caycho‐Rodríguez, T., Carbajal‐León, C., Castaman, L. A. O., Pino, G. L. H., Calderón, R., & Barbosa-Granados, S. (2022) · Psicologia Reflexão e Crítica · doi:10.1186/s41155-022-00218-y · Cited by 8
Pinto, A. M., Curral, L. A., Costa, M. D. R., Quadros, F., de Jesús, S. N., Martínez, I. M., Roazzi, A., & Oliveira, S. (2025) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare13040371 · Cited by 9
“This result aligns with previous studies, including pre-pandemic ones [31,45] and others following the pandemic outbreak [39], suggesting a positive association between academic engagement and college students’ academic performance.”
Psychological distress and socio-economic consequences of unemployment: an exploratory analysis
Li, X., Jiang, M., & Madni, G. R. (2025) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-025-03518-x · Cited by 8
“The worldwide social constraints and bans on gatherings due to the pandemic in the form of lockdowns have strengthened and increased the feelings of loneliness, caused to deteriorate the mental health of people [65].”
Sulimani‐Aidan, Y. (2022) · Child & Family Social Work · doi:10.1111/cfs.12927 · Cited by 7
“The worldwide lockdown and the restrictions imposed on social gatherings in the wake of the pandemic have increased and strengthened feelings of loneliness, particularly among young adults, causing damage to their mental health (Serafini et al., 2020; WHO, 2020).”
BackgroundJain, V., Nabi, N., Aggarwal, S., Alam, Z., Chandra, K., Singh, D., Kashyap, V., Islam, F., & Kohli, S. (2023) · Journal of Clinical Nursing · doi:10.1111/jocn.16652 · Cited by 7
Opoku, F. K., & Owusu, N. K. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0303855 · Cited by 10
“Much as the effect of COVID-19 pandemic is expected to affect the psychological well-being of health workers generally, previous studies [1, 12–14] have shown that the psychological well-being of rural health workers; following their infrastructural and materialistic disadvantage, is relatively…”
Feeling Uncertainty during the Lockdown That Commenced in March 2020 in Greece
Zavras, D. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18105105 · Cited by 7
“Thus, although limited resources and uncertainty characterize the social context of lower-class individuals in general [49], it seems that in the case of COVID-19, the feelings of uncertainty that restrictions and lockdowns generate [50] may have another predictor.”
BackgroundKučera, D., Stuchlíková, I., & Mrhálek, T. (2021) · European Journal of Investigation in Health Psychology and Education · doi:10.3390/ejihpe11030079 · Cited by 7
Gönenç, İ. M., Özen, D. Ö., & Sezer, N. Y. (2022) · International Journal of Sexual Health · doi:10.1080/19317611.2022.2058145 · Cited by 7
“Fear is a common psychological reaction associated with the COVID-19 pandemic (Broche-P erez et al., 2022; Serafini et al., 2020).”
BackgroundMazurkiewicz, D. W., Strzelecka, J., & Piechocka, D. I. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm11082072 · Cited by 7
“• mental health specialists and other medical providers, midwives, and nurses can prevent adverse outcomes by identifying problems early (paying special attention to the group of women with adverse mental health and psychiatric symptoms, including assessing sleep patterns, sources of fear, anxiety, swinging moods, irr…”
Anticipatory worry and returning to campus during the COVID-19 pandemic
Pandit, N., Monda, S., & Campbell, K. (2022) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.1080/07448481.2022.2057803 · Cited by 7
“17”
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Felician, J., Galvão, F., Lefebvre, M., Nourredine, M., & Peter‐Derex, L. (2022) · Nature and Science of Sleep · doi:10.2147/nss.s369859 · Cited by 7
Wang, D., Liu, H.-L., & Shen, C.-C. (2022) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su141811133 · Cited by 7
Psychological Health in Intensive Care Unit Health Care Workers after the COVID-19 Pandemic
Carola, V., Vincenzo, C., Morale, C., Cecchi, V., Rocco, M., & Nicolais, G. (2022) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare10112201 · Cited by 9
Physical Activity and Depression among Korean Female College Students Due to COVID-19
Song, Y.-E., & Lim, S. (2022) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su142416326 · Cited by 8
Naseem, A., Rasool, F., Ahmed, A., & Carter, W. G. (2022) · Current Issues in Molecular Biology · doi:10.3390/cimb45010002 · Cited by 7
Metadata
- Authors
- Serafini, G., Parmigiani, B., Amerio, A., Aguglia, A., Sher, L., & Amore, M.
- Affiliations
- Ospedale Policlinico San Martino (IT)
- James J. Peters VA Medical Center (US)
- Corresponding author
- Serafini, G
- Venue
- QJM: An International Journal of Medicine
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2020-06-30
- Volume
- 113
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 531-537
- ISSN
- 0033-5622 (ISSN-L)
- 1460-2725
- 1460-2393
- PMC
- PMC7337855
- OpenAlex
- W3036526826
- Cited by
- 1,187
- References
- 40
- Citations by year
- 2026: 19 · 2025: 61 · 2024: 117 · 2023: 208 · 2022: 312 · 2021: 390 · 2020: 77
- FWCI
- 98.92
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- academic.oup.com/journals/pages/open_access/funder_policies/chorus/standard_publication_model (vor)
- Locations
- QJM (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- CINECA IRIS Institutial Research Information System (University of Genoa) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- DINOGMI Department of Excellence of MIUR (2018-2022, 232/2016)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Keywords
- COVID-19 pandemic, mental health, psychological distress, anxiety, depression, stress, uncertainty, quarantine, risk factors, protective factors, mental illness, general population
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