The origins of quantum biology

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The origins that motivated and sustained Jordan's interest in quantum biology are linked to his political sympathies with Nazi Germany and help explain why the field did not flourish further after the war.

“The murky origins that motivated and sustained his interest in quantum biology are inextricably linked to his political sympathies with Nazi Germany and play an important role in explaining why the field did not flourish further after the war ended.”

May combine two claims.

Pascual Jordan published a book a year before Schrödinger's, Physics and the Secret of Organic Life, in which he posed the question whether the laws of atomic and quantum physics are of essential importance for life.

“For example, the German physicist Pascual Jordan published a book a year before Schrödinger's, entitled Physics and the Secret of Organic Life [20], in which he had posed the question ‘Sind die Gesetze der Atomphysik und Quantenphysik für die Lebensvorgänge von wesentlicher Bedeutung?’ (‘Are the laws of atomic and quantum physics of essential importance for life?’).”

• cites [20] Jordan P. 1941. Die Physik und das Geheimnis des organischen Lebens. Braunschweig, Germany: Friedrich Vieweg & Sohn. [Google Scholar]Not checked yet

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Some insights provided by the pioneering quantum physicists remain relevant to our understanding of quantum biology today.

“We will argue that some of the insights provided by these pioneering physicists remain relevant to our understanding of quantum biology today.”

• Also stated in: § 1. Introduction · plain

  “We will argue that some of the insights provided by a number of these physicists remain relevant to our understanding of quantum biology today.”

May combine two claims.

Quantum biology's origins are often traced back to 1944 and Schrödinger's What is Life?, but several other quantum physicists had already made inroads into biology before this.

“Quantum biology's origins are often traced back to 1944 and the publication of Erwin Schrödinger's famous book, What is Life? [19]. But even before this, several other quantum physicists had already made inroads into biology.”

• cites [19] Schrödinger E. 1944. What is life? London, UK: Cambridge University Press. [Google Scholar]Not checked yet

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Schrödinger pinpointed the role of the randomizing influence of thermal motion, today called environmental decoherence, which separates the quantum from the classical world, an insight often traced to Dieter Zeh.

“In this, Schrödinger was essentially pinpointing the role of the randomizing influence of thermal motion, what we refer to today as ‘environmental decoherence’ [35], which is what separates the quantum from the classical world, an insight that is often traced back to the work of Dieter Zeh [36].”

• cites [35] Zurek WH. 2003. Decoherence, einselection, and the quantum origins of the classical. Rev. Mod. Phys. 75, 715–775. ( 10.1103/RevModPhys.75.715) [DOI] [Google Scholar] sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [36] Zeh HD. 1970. On the interpretation of measurement in quantum theory. Found. Phys. 1, 69–76. ( 10.1007/BF00708656) [DOI] [Google Scholar] sourceNot checked yet

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Jordan believed that living organisms were uniquely able to carry out amplification of quantum indeterminism into the macroscopic world, unlike inanimate matter.

“Jordan believed that living organisms were uniquely able to carry out this amplification in a way that was conspicuously different from inanimate matter, such as a Geiger counter.”

• cites [25] Jordan P. 1932. Die Quantenmechanik und die Grundprobleme der Biologie und Psychologie. Naturwissenschaften 20, 815–821. ( 10.1007/BF01494844) [DOI] [Google Scholar] sourceNot checked yet

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Schrödinger claimed life depended on an 'order from order' principle in which incredibly small groups of atoms play a dominating role in the orderly and lawful events within a living organism.

“Schrödinger called this principle on which he claimed life depended ‘order from order’, arguing that ‘incredibly small groups of atoms, much too small to display exact statistical laws, do play a dominating role in the very orderly and lawful events within a living organism’ [19, p. 20].”

• cites [19] Schrödinger E. 1944. What is life? London, UK: Cambridge University Press. [Google Scholar]Not checked yet

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Bertalanffy's ideas influenced Pascual Jordan.

“His ideas influenced many other scientists, including the German physicist Pascual Jordan”

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Ludwig von Bertalanffy founded general systems theory and in his 1928 book claimed there was a need for new organizational principles to describe life.

“One of the early proponents of organicism was Ludwig von Bertalanffy, who is generally accepted to have founded the interdisciplinary field called general systems theory, which has since been applied to everything from biology to cybernetics. His work is considered to be among the forerunners of systems biology. In his 1928 book Kritische Theorie der Formbildung (Critical Theory of Morphogenesis)”

• cites [23] von Bertalanffy L. 1928. Kritische theorie der formbildung. Berlin, Germany: Gebrüder Borntraeger Verlagsbuchhandlung. [Google Scholar]Not checked yet

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Most biologists continued to believe that life is adequately accounted for by all the familiar statistical laws of classical chemistry and physics.

“However, by and large, most biologists continued to believe that life is adequately accounted for by all the familiar statistical laws of classical chemistry and physics.”

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Fröhlich proposed a theory in which quantum mechanical coherence, now known as Fröhlich coherence, plays an important role in biological systems; a biological system attaining such a state is known as a Fröhlich condensate.

“For example, the German-born British physicist Herbert Fröhlich proposed a theory in which quantum mechanical coherence, now known as Fröhlich coherence, plays an important role in biological systems [38--40]. A biological system that attains such a state of coherence is known as a Fröhlich condensate.”

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Theoretical and experimental approaches have explored the role of proton tunnelling in the generation of DNA base tautomers.

“Theoretical and experimental approaches have also explored the role of proton tunnelling in the generation of DNA base tautomers [14].”

• cites [14] Godbeer AD, Al-Khalili JS, Stevenson PD. 2015. Modelling proton tunnelling in the adenine-thymine base pair. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 17, 13034–13044. ( 10.1039/c5cp00472a) [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] sourceNot checked yet

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Fröhlich argued that biological organization was facilitated by coherent excited states at the molecular level, driven by energy flow from metabolic processes that generate molecular vibrations in the terahertz range.

“He argued that biological organization was facilitated by coherent excited states at the molecular level, driven by the flow of energy provided by metabolic processes that generate molecular vibrations in terahertz range.”

• cites [38--40]Not checked yet

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Jordan claimed that the concept of a single dictatorial leader (Führer) was a central principle of life.

“He even claimed that the concept of a single dictatorial leader (Führer), or guide, was a central principle of life:”

• cites [25] Jordan P. 1932. Die Quantenmechanik und die Grundprobleme der Biologie und Psychologie. Naturwissenschaften 20, 815–821. ( 10.1007/BF01494844) [DOI] [Google Scholar] sourceNot checked yet

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Longuet-Higgins's stance was typical of the attitude towards quantum biology in the second half of the twentieth century, and this scepticism was largely justified.

“Longuet-Higgins’s stance was very typical of the attitude towards quantum biology in the second half of the twentieth century, and, to a large extent, this scepticism was wholly justified.”

• cites [33] Longuet-Higgins HC. 1962. Quantum mechanics and biology. Biophys. J. 2, 207–215. ( 10.1016/S0006-3495(62)86957-4) [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] sourceNot checked yet

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Bohr's pessimism regarding the importance of quantum mechanics in unlocking the secrets of life influenced and inspired the men who would lay the foundations of quantum biology.

“One such critic was Niels Bohr himself; and yet, as we shall see, it was Bohr's pessimism regarding the importance of quantum mechanics in unlocking the secrets of life that would, paradoxically, influence and inspire the men who would lay the foundations of quantum biology.”

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Physicists dismissed the possibility that quantum effects could play a role in biology, particularly because demonstrating them in inorganic systems required extreme isolation unsustainable for biologically relevant time scales in a hot, wet, complex living cell.

“Physicists similarly dismissed the possibility that quantum effects could play a role in biology, particularly as demonstrating them in inorganic physical systems required an extraordinary level of control that could only be achieved by maintaining systems at temperatures close to absolute zero in a vacuum and shielded from environmental perturbations.”

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It was expected that delicate quantum effects such as superposition and coherence would rapidly dissipate (decohere) in biological systems, suppressing well-controlled quantum dynamics.

“Therefore, it was expected that any delicate quantum effects, such as quantum superposition and coherence, will very rapidly dissipate (decohere), resulting in the suppression of any well-controlled quantum dynamics.”

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Schrödinger claimed that the high fidelity of heredity could not be accounted for by classical laws because genes were too small.

“Schrödinger was impressed by the extraordinary high fidelity of genetic inheritance, which had been shown to be associated with mutation rates of less than 10–8 per gene per generation. He claimed that high fidelity of heredity could not be accounted for by the classical laws, because genes were too small.”

• cites [19] Schrödinger E. 1944. What is life? London, UK: Cambridge University Press. [Google Scholar]Not checked yet

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• AssumptionRests on an assumption: By the 1940s, heredity was known to be governed by genes, but nobody yet knew what genes were made of.

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Haldane argued that at the molecular level, life differs from inanimate matter in that it can be influenced on the macroscale by single events at the quantum level.

“He clarifies his position by arguing that, at the molecular level, life differs from inanimate matter in that it can be influenced on the macroscale by single events at the quantum level,”

• cites [29] Haldane J. 1934. Quantum mechanics as a basis for philosophy. Philos. Sci. 1, 78–98. ( 10.1086/286307) [DOI] [Google Scholar] sourceNot checked yet

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Schrödinger argued that genetic information had to be encoded at the molecular level as an unusually large molecule of highly differentiated order safeguarded by quantum theory.

“He argued that genetic information had to be encoded at the molecular level as ‘an unusually large molecule which has to be a masterpiece of highly differentiated order, safeguarded by the conjuring rod of quantum theory’ [19, p. 68].”

• cites [19] Schrödinger E. 1944. What is life? London, UK: Cambridge University Press. [Google Scholar]Not checked yet

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Schrödinger estimated the size of a gene as no bigger than a cube of sides 300 Å containing a maximum of about 1 million atoms, so the level of noise in heredity if based on the order from disorder principle should be about one in 1000, or 0.1%-clearly much higher than the observed mutation rates.

“Using target theory, he estimated the size of a gene as no bigger than a cube of sides 300 Å containing a maximum of about 1 million atoms, so the level of noise in heredity if based on the order from disorder principle should be about one in 1000, or 0.1%—clearly much higher than the observed mutation rates.”

• cites [19] Schrödinger E. 1944. What is life? London, UK: Cambridge University Press. [Google Scholar]Not checked yet

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Organicism was a reaction to mechanism and vitalism; organicists accepted that there was something mysterious about life but claimed the mystery could in principle be explained by new laws of physics and chemistry as yet undiscovered.

“The organicists sought a middle ground. They accepted that there was something mysterious about life but claimed that the mystery could in principle be explained by the laws of physics and chemistry—it is just that these had to be new laws, as yet undiscovered.”

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Jordan claimed that life's missing laws were the rules of chance and probability (indeterminism) of the quantum world scaled up inside living organisms, and called this his amplifier theory.

“Jordan incorporated the organicism approach into his thinking by claiming that life's missing laws were the rules of chance and probability (the indeterminism) of the quantum world that were somehow scaled up inside living organisms. He called this his ‘amplifier theory’”

• cites [25] Jordan P. 1932. Die Quantenmechanik und die Grundprobleme der Biologie und Psychologie. Naturwissenschaften 20, 815–821. ( 10.1007/BF01494844) [DOI] [Google Scholar] sourceNot checked yet

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Schrödinger published What is Life? in 1944 in Ireland.

“He settled in Ireland, where in 1944 he published a book whose title posed the question ‘What is life?’ [19], to which we now turn.”

• cites [19] Schrödinger E. 1944. What is life? London, UK: Cambridge University Press. [Google Scholar]Not checked yet

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Jordan correctly pointed out that inanimate objects are governed by the average random motion of millions of particles, such that the motion of a single molecule has no influence on the whole object.

“Yet Jordan correctly pointed out that inanimate objects were governed by the average random motion of millions of particles, such that the motion of a single molecule has no influence whatsoever on the whole object.”

May combine two claims.

After Germany's defeat, Jordan's highly politicized ideas became anathema, the other matchmakers between biology and fundamental physics were scattered after WWII, and physics turned to more traditional problems.

“However, after Germany's defeat, Jordan's highly politicized ideas became anathema. The other matchmakers of the proposed marriage between biology and fundamental physics were scattered to the four winds in the aftermath of the Second World War; and physics, shaken to its core by the atomic bomb, turned its attention to more traditional problems.”

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By the closing years of the 1930s, a number of highly influential scientists on both sides of the Atlantic were examining the implications of the 'new physics' for biology, driven by a growing mechanistic picture of biology at the smallest scales, but under the umbrella of organicism.

“By the closing years of the 1930s, a number of highly influential scientists on both sides of the Atlantic were examining the implications of the ‘new physics’ for biology, driven by a growing mechanistic picture of biology at the smallest scales, but under the umbrella of organicism.”

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Jordan's insistence that living organisms have a unique ability to amplify the quantum into the macroscopic world resonates with modern views of quantum biology.

“Jordan's insistence that living organisms have a unique ability to amplify the quantum into the macroscopic world does have a lot of resonance with modern views of quantum biology.”

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Jordan was genuinely sympathetic to fascism and Nazi ideology.

“Jordan was genuinely sympathetic to fascism and Nazi ideology.”

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Schrödinger claimed that living systems somehow circumvent decoherence, an idea that resonates with modern work on the role that environmental noise may play in maintaining coherence in living cells.

“Schrödinger is essentially claiming that living systems somehow circumvent decoherence, an idea that resonates with modern work on the role that environmental noise may play in maintaining coherence in living cells.”

May combine two claims.

It is increasingly recognized that living systems may depend on the dynamics of small numbers of molecules that are extremely well localized across a few nanometres and take place over picosecond timescales, and this relative isolation could allow non-trivial quantum processes before decoherence washes them away.

“Nevertheless, it is being increasingly recognized that, just as Jordan and Schrödinger argued, living systems may after all depend on the dynamics of small numbers of molecules that are extremely well localized (extending across just a few nanometres—the scale of biomolecules such as proteins) and can take place over very short time scales (often of the order of picoseconds).”

• Also stated in: § 5. Current thinking · hedged

  “This relative isolation in space, complexity and time could allow non-trivial, purely quantum mechanical processes to play an important role in living systems before decoherence induced by the surrounding environment can wash them away.”

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Jordan argued that the few molecules controlling living cells within the Steuerungszentrum have a dictatorial influence, such that quantum-level events governing their motion are amplified to influence the entire organism.

“Jordan similarly argued that the few molecules that control the dynamics of living cells within the ‘Steuerungszentrum’ have a dictatorial influence, such that quantum-level events that govern their motion, such as Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, are amplified to influence the entire organism.”

• cites [25] Jordan P. 1932. Die Quantenmechanik und die Grundprobleme der Biologie und Psychologie. Naturwissenschaften 20, 815–821. ( 10.1007/BF01494844) [DOI] [Google Scholar] sourceNot checked yet

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Schrödinger claimed genetic information must be encoded by an aperiodic crystal, a complicated organic molecule in which every atom and group of atoms plays an individual role.

“he claimed that genetic information must be encoded by a ‘more complicated organic molecule in which every atom, and every group of atoms, plays an individual role, not entirely equivalent to that of many others (as is the case in a periodic structure). We might quite properly call that an aperiodic crystal or solid … ’ [19, pp. 60–61].”

• cites [19] Schrödinger E. 1944. What is life? London, UK: Cambridge University Press. [Google Scholar]Not checked yet

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The insight that life depends on the dynamics of a small number of molecules is usually credited to Schrödinger.

“This insight, as we will see, is usually credited to Erwin Schrödinger, who later claimed that life was different from inorganic chemistry because of its dependence on the dynamics of a small number of molecules.”

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Watson and Crick speculated that mutations could be caused by tautomerization of DNA bases from their common imino forms to rare enol forms, which could produce incorrect base pairs during DNA replication.

“When Watson and Crick published their structure of DNA they speculated that mutations could be caused by tautomerization of DNA bases from their common imino forms to the rare enol forms, which could produce incorrect base pairs during DNA replication.”

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The debate has now shifted from the question of whether quantum coherence and tunnelling are involved to the role that they play.

“The debate has now shifted from the question of whether quantum coherence and tunnelling are involved to the role that they play.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

It is likely that life has learned to manipulate quantum systems to its advantage in ways that we do not yet fully understand.

“It is likely that, in that time, life has learned to manipulate quantum systems to its advantage in ways that we do not yet fully understand.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Quantum dynamics taking place within living systems have been subject to 3.5 billion years of optimizing evolution.

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Other areas of quantum biology, such as olfaction, magnetoreception or mutation, remain more speculative, at least partly because the experimental systems are not as tractable to precise physical measurement.

“Other areas of quantum biology, such as olfaction, magnetoreception or mutation, remain more speculative, at least partly because the experimental systems are not as tractable to precise physical measurement.”

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Phenomena such as quantum tunnelling and quantum coherence are now widely accepted as being involved in vitally important processes for all living cells, such as energy transfer and enzyme action.

“Phenomena such as quantum tunnelling and quantum coherence are now widely accepted as being involved in vitally important processes for all living cells, such as energy transfer and enzyme action.”