Cited by 101Autonomous Vehicle Technology and SafetyVehicle Dynamics and Control SystemsReinforcement Learning in Robotics

A Survey of Deep Learning Applications to Autonomous Vehicle Control

Open access
Kuutti, Sampo, Bowden, Richard, Jin, Yaochu, Barber, Phil, Fallah, Saber·2021·IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems

Abstract

Designing a controller for autonomous vehicles capable of providing adequate performance in all driving scenarios is challenging due to the highly complex environment and inability to test the system in the wide variety of scenarios which it may encounter after deployment. However, deep learning methods have shown great promise in not only providing excellent performance for complex and non-linear control problems, but also in generalising previously learned rules to new scenarios. For these reasons, the use of deep learning for vehicle control is becoming increasingly popular. Although important advancements have been achieved in this field, these works have not been fully summarised. This paper surveys a wide range of research works reported in the literature which aim to control a vehicle through deep learning methods. Although there exists overlap between control and perception, the focus of this paper is on vehicle control, rather than the wider perception problem which includes tasks such as semantic segmentation and object detection. The paper identifies the strengths and limitations of available deep learning methods through comparative analysis and discusses the research challenges in terms of computation, architecture selection, goal specification, generalisation, verification and validation, as well as safety. Overall, this survey brings timely and topical information to a rapidly evolving field relevant to intelligent transportation systems.

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Crossref · 10.1109/tits.2019.2962338

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  • Poor quality data can propagate abusive content.

    “This includes historical signals and inappropriately proxied measures that make ML systems vulnerable to reproducing past discrimination against under-represented groups (e.g. in contexts such as job hiring and criminal justice), or propagating abusive content [46,67].”

    From A Survey of Data Quality Requirements That Matter in ML Development Pipelines (2023) · cites this paper as [46]

    In E. Verification & Validation (page unavailable), the paper says poor-quality or biased training data can introduce harmful biases into an autonomous vehicle’s learned control policy. It does not discuss propagating abusive content, so that attributed outcome is unsupported. (LLM, conf=0.86)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Historical signals and inappropriately proxied measures make ML systems vulnerable to reproducing past discrimination against under-represented groups (e.g., in contexts such as job hiring and criminal justice).

    “This includes historical signals and inappropriately proxied measures that make ML systems vulnerable to reproducing past discrimination against under-represented groups (e.g. in contexts such as job hiring and criminal justice), or propagating abusive content [46,67].”

    From A Survey of Data Quality Requirements That Matter in ML Development Pipelines (2023) · cites this paper as [46]

    The Supervised Learning and Verification & Validation sections say that biased training data can produce harmful biases in autonomous-driving models. They do not address historical discrimination, proxy measures, under-represented groups, hiring, or criminal justice; the support is limited to the general point that data bias can affect ML systems. No page numbers were available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.82)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

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12 of the 230 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 5

  1. V. R. Konda and J. N. Tsitsiklis, "On actor-critic algorithms," SIAM journal on Control and Optimization, vol. 42, no. 4, pp. 1143-1166, 2003.
  2. C. J. Watkins and P. Dayan, "Q-learning," Machine learning, vol. 8, no. 3-4, pp. 279-292, 1992.
  3. R. Sanner and M. Mears, "Stable adaptive tracking of uncertainty systems using nonlinearly parameterized on-line approximators," IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks, vol. 3, no. 6, pp. 837-863, 1992.
  4. M. Maurer, J. C. Gerdes, B. Lenz, and H. Winner, Autonomous Driving. Berlin: Springer, Heidelberg, 2016.
  5. R. J. Schalkoff, Artificial Neural Networks. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1997.

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Authors
Kuutti, S., Bowden, R., Jin, Y., Barber, P., & Fallah, S.
Affiliations
  • University of Surrey (GB)
  • Jaguar Land Rover (United Kingdom) (GB)
Venue
IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems
Published
2021-02
Volume
22
Issue
2
Pages
712-733
ISSN
  • 1524-9050 (ISSN-L)
  • 1558-0016
OpenAlex
W2995697759
Cited by
96
References
230
Citations by year
2026: 12 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 16 · 2023: 21 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 21 · 2020: 5
FWCI
5.64
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems (publishedVersion)
  • arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
  • Surrey Research Insight Open Access (The University of Surrey) (submittedVersion)
  • PUB – Publications at Bielefeld University (Bielefeld University) (submittedVersion)
  • arXiv (Cornell University)
Funders
  • U.K.-Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EP/R512217/1)
  • Jaguar Land Rover
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Automotive Engineering › Autonomous Vehicle Technology and Safety
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Automotive Engineering › Vehicle Dynamics and Control Systems
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Reinforcement Learning in Robotics
Keywords
autonomous vehicles, vehicle control, deep learning control, verification and validation, safety, goal specification, intelligent transportation systems

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