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Twenty years’ research on peer victimization and psychosocial maladjustment: A meta-analytic review of cross-sectional studies
Open accessAbstract
Cross-sectional quantitative designs are often used to investigate whether peer victimization is positively related to psychosocial maladjustment. This paper presents a meta-analytic review of cross-sectional studies, published between 1978 and 1997, of the association of peer victimization with psychosocial maladjustment. Mean effect sizes were calculated for the association between peer victimization and each form of maladjustment (depression, loneliness, generalized and social anxiety, and global and social self-worth) assessed. The results suggested that victimization is most strongly related to depression, and least strongly related to anxiety. There was no evidence that victimization is more strongly related to social than to psychological forms of maladjustment. Effect sizes were stronger when the same informants were used to assess both victimization and maladjustment than when different informants were used. There were some design limitations to the studies reviewed, but all together their results provide a strong background for more complex research into the course and treatment of victims' distress.
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“For this reason, having problematic relationships with peers (i.e., being isolated, having no friends, not being liked by peers, etc.) is a strong risk factor for cybervictimization [52,53].”
From Cybervictimization and Online Sexual Harassment: Prevalence, Association, and Predictors (2024) · cites this paper as [52]
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“Peer victimization in childhood and adolescence has damaging effects on psychological adjustment and is strongly associated cross-sectionally and longitudinally with symptoms of depression (Hawker and Boulton, 2000; Desjardins and Leadbeater, 2011; Ttofi et al., 2011; Stapinski et al., 2015)”
From Neural Activation to Parental Praise Interacts With Social Context to Predict Adolescent Depressive Symptoms (2019) · cites this paper as Hawker and Boulton, 2000
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“In particular, victimization is a significant predictor of both interpersonal problems and internalizing emotional problems such as anxiety and depression (Graham, Bellmore, & Mize, 2006; Hawker & Boulton, 2000; Nishina, Juvonen, & Witkow, 2005; Perren, Dooley, Shaw, & Cross, 2010).”
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“Research has shown that child and adolescent bully victimization is associated with poorer school achievements (Nakamoto & Schwartz, 2010), lower self-esteem, more loneliness, depression and anxiety (Hawker & Boulton, 2000).”
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“Depression has been found to be the most common correlate of peer victimization (Hawker & Boulton, 2000).”
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“The social and emotional risks to victims of bullying are considerable, including increased likelihood of depression, anxiety, loneliness, and low self-esteem (Hawker & Boulton, 2000).”
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“…distress, it has been documented that students’ experiences with peer victimization or exposure to violence reliably have been associated with anxiety, depression, withdrawal and loneliness, and lower self-esteem (Craig 1998; Crick and Grotpeter 1996; Hawker and Boulton 2000; Juvonen et al. 2000).”
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“Kenneth A. Dodge is supported by NIDA 2K05 DA015226.”
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Victimisation and suicide ideation in the TRAILS study: specific vulnerabilities of victims
Herba, C. M., Ferdinand, R. F., Stijnen, T., Veenstra, R., Oldehinkel, A. J., Ormel, J., & Verhulst, F. C. (2008) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.01900.x · Cited by 116
Comparative Study of Bullying Victimization Among Students in General and Special Education
Hartley, M. T., Bauman, S. A., Nixon, C. L., & Davis, S. (2015) · Exceptional Children · doi:10.1177/0014402914551741 · Cited by 136
“Numerous studies have shown that children who are frequent targets of bullying are at risk for a variety of adjustment problems, including childhood depression, loneliness, anxiety, peer rejection, and low self-esteem (Hawker & Boulton, 2000).”
BackgroundBenedini, K. M., Fagan, A. A., & Gibson, C. L. (2016) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2016.08.003 · Cited by 119
“…victimization can itself result in numerous problems, including poor school performance, mental health problems, substance use, and criminal involvement (Hanish & Guerra, 2002; Hawker & Boulton, 2000; Juvonen & Graham, 2014; Macmillan, 2001; Nakamoto & Schwartz, 2010; Parker & Asher, 1998).”
BackgroundOlthof, T., & Goossens, F. A. (2007) · Social Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2007.00413.x · Cited by 113
Peer victimization and pediatric obesity: A review of the literature
Gray, W. N., Kahhan, N. A., & Janicke, D. M. (2009) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.20410 · Cited by 112
The potential of forgiveness as a response for coping with negative peer experiences
Flanagan, K. S., Hoek, K. K. V., Ranter, J., & Reich, H. A. (2012) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2012.04.004 · Cited by 132
“School bullying in particular places many victims at risk for maladjustment, including depression, loneliness, generalized and social anxiety, and low global and social self-worth (Griffin & Gross, 2004; Hawker & Boulton, 2000).”
BackgroundThe link between emotion regulation, social functioning, and depression in boys with ASD
Pouw, L. B. C., Rieffe, C. J., Stockmann, L., & Gadow, K. D. (2013) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2013.01.002 · Cited by 112
Don't anger me! Bullying, victimization, and emotion dysregulation in young adolescents with ASD
Rieffe, C. J., Camodeca, M., Pouw, L. B. C., Lange, A. M. C., & Stockmann, L. (2012) · European Journal of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17405629.2012.680302 · Cited by 125
“Besides anger, victims are also characterized by other negative emotions such as anxiety and sadness (Camodeca & Goossens, 2005; Fleming & Jacobsen, 2009; Hawker & Boulton, 2000).”
BackgroundText-Bullying: Associations With Traditional Bullying and Depression Among New Zealand Adolescents
Raskauskas, J. (2009) · Journal of School Violence · doi:10.1080/15388220903185605 · Cited by 111
“In fact, prior research has indicated that depression may increase students' risk of being bullied ( Hawker & Boulton, 2000 ; Swearer, Grills, Haye, & Cary, 2004 ).”
BackgroundSinger, E. (2005) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/00222194050380050401 · Cited by 111
Peer victimisation and internalising difficulties: The moderating role of friendship quality
Woods, S. N., Done, J., & Kalsi, H. S. (2008) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2008.03.005 · Cited by 112
Marsh, H. W., Parada, R. H., Yeung, A. S., & Healey, J. B. (2001) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-0663.93.2.411 · Cited by 117
Psychiatric conditions associated with bullying
Kumpulainen, K. (2008) · International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health · doi:10.1515/ijamh.2008.20.2.121 · Cited by 111
KERF–Ein Instrument zur umfassenden Ermittlung belastender Kindheitserfahrungen
Isele, D., Teicher, M. H., Ruf-Leuschner, M., Elbert, T., Kolassa, I.-T., Schury, K., & Schauer, M. (2014) · Zeitschrift für Klinische Psychologie und Psychotherapie · doi:10.1026/1616-3443/a000257 · Cited by 103
“Körperliche Gewalt durch Gleichaltrige (peer physical violence; PEERP) Zusammenleben mit einer von (7.) einer psychischen Erkrankung, (8.) einer Alkoholproblematik, oder (9.)”
BackgroundInfluentialRanta, K., Kaltiala‐Heino, R., Pelkonen, M. U. I., & MARTTUNEN, M. J. (2008) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2007.11.005 · Cited by 121
Effects of peer victimization on psychological and academic adjustment in early adolescence.
Rueger, S. Y., & Jenkins, L. N. (2013) · School Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.1037/spq0000036 · Cited by 110
Peer Victimization and Peer Rejection During Early Childhood
Godleski, S. A., Kamper‐DeMarco, K. E., Ostrov, J. M., Hart, E. J., & Blakely‐McClure, S. J. (2014) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2014.940622 · Cited by 121
“Despite clear advances in our field (Hawker & Boulton, 2000), further study of the factors that are associated with the development of peer victimization is needed.”
Associations Between Peer Victimization and Academic Performance
Espelage, D. L., Hong, J. S., Rao, M. A., & Low, S. K. (2013) · Theory Into Practice · doi:10.1080/00405841.2013.829724 · Cited by 124
“Peer victimization refers to children’s experience of being a target of aggression perpetrated by other children who are not necessarily siblings (Hawker & Boulton, 2000; Lopez & DuBois, 2005).”
BackgroundHong, J. S., Kral, M. J., & Sterzing, P. R. (2014) · Trauma Violence & Abuse · doi:10.1177/1524838014537904 · Cited by 117
“Depression is the most commonly identified and strongly associated mental health outcome of bullying victimization (Espelage & Swearer, 2003; Hawker & Boulton, 2000).”
BackgroundThomas, H. J., Connor, J. P., Lawrence, D. M., Hafekost, J., Zubrick, S. R., & Scott, J. G. (2017) · Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0004867417707819 · Cited by 108
“Additional studies have shown bullying victimisation contributes to a range of mental health problems (Cook et al., 2010a; Hawker and Boulton, 2000), over and above premorbid adjustment problems (Bond et al., 2001), and demonstrates a dose–response effect (Evans et al., 2014).”
BackgroundResultBoulton, M. J., Trueman, M., & Murray, L. (2008) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1348/000709908x320471 · Cited by 109
Self-citationGeneral Strain Theory and School Bullying
Moon, B., Morash, M., & McCluskey, J. D. (2010) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0011128710364809 · Cited by 109
“…finding, which however does point to emotions other than anger, is from a meta analysis of research on peer victimization and psychosocial maladjustment (Hawker & Boulton, 2000), which showed that the most common negative emotion resulting Moon et al. 847 from peer victimization is depression.”
ResultPatton, D. U., Hong, J. S., Patel, S., & Kral, M. J. (2017) · Trauma, Violence, & Abuse · doi:10.1177/1524838015588502 · Cited by 110
“…journals (for reviews, see Bauman, 2008; Bjorkqvist, 1994; Espelage & Swearer, 2003; Garandeau & Cillessen, 2006; Griffin & Gross, 2004; Hawker & Boulton, 2000; Monks et al., 2009; Pellegrini, 1998; Rigby, 2003; Salmivalli, 2010; Salmon, James, Cassidy, & Javaloyes, 2000; Smith, 2004;…”
Peer Victimization and Effortful Control: Relations to School Engagement and Academic Achievement
Iyer, R. V., Ladd, G. W., Eisenberg, N., & Thompson, M. S. (2010) · Merrill-palmer Quarterly · doi:10.1353/mpq.0.0058 · Cited by 108
Demanet, J., & Houtte, M. V. (2012) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2012.03.008 · Cited by 126
A Chatbot-Based Coaching Intervention for Adolescents to Promote Life Skills: Pilot Study
Gabrielli, S., Rizzi, S., Carbone, S., & Donisi, V. (2020) · JMIR Human Factors · doi:10.2196/16762 · Cited by 105
“Research has shown that adolescent bully victimization is associated with poorer school achievement [4]; lower self-esteem; and increased loneliness, depression, and anxiety [5], whose consequences persist into adulthood [6].”
BackgroundIdentification of Aggressive and Asocial Victims and the Stability of Their Peer Victimization
Ladd, G. W. (2003) · Merrill-palmer Quarterly · doi:10.1353/mpq.2003.0022 · Cited by 110
Peer Rejection and HPA Activity in Middle Childhood: Friendship Makes a Difference
Peters, E. M., Riksen‐Walraven, J. M., Cillessen, A. H. N., & de Weerth, C. (2011) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01647.x · Cited by 117
Midgett, A., & Doumas, D. M. (2019) · School Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s12310-019-09312-6 · Cited by 115
Seeds, P. M., Harkness, K. L., & Quilty, L. C. (2010) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2010.501289 · Cited by 105
“Similarly, a meta-analytic review suggests that bullying is more strongly related to depression than any other maladaptive outcome (Hawker & Boulton, 2000 ).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Hawker, D. S. J., & Boulton, M. J.
- Affiliations
- Warneford Hospital (GB)
- Keele University (GB)
- ORCID
- Boulton, Michael J.
- Venue
- Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2000-05
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 441-455
- ISSN
- 0021-9630 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-7610
- OpenAlex
- W1968712199
- Cited by
- 2,694
- References
- 38
- Citations by year
- 2026: 68 · 2025: 60 · 2024: 96 · 2023: 88 · 2022: 93 · 2021: 130 · 2020: 111 · 2019: 125 · 2018: 134 · 2017: 148 · 2016: 146 · 2015: 182 · 2014: 183 · 2013: 210 · 2012: 186
- FWCI
- 30.41
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- British Psychological Society
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Bullying, Victimization, and Aggression
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Keywords
- peer victimization, psychosocial maladjustment, depression, loneliness, social anxiety, generalized anxiety disorder, self-worth
- MeSH terms
- Adjustment Disorders, Adolescent, Child, Cross-Sectional Studies, Cross-Cultural Comparison, General Adaptation Syndrome, Humans, Internal-External Control, Peer Group, Social Adjustment, Crime Victims
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