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Cited by 4Psychoanalysis and Psychopathology ResearchMisinformation and Its ImpactsPsychoanalysis and Social Critique

The Role of Early Trauma in the Formation of Belief in Reptilian Conspiracy Theories: A Psychoanalytic Perspective

Open access
Dixon, Agnieszka M.·2023·British Journal of Psychotherapy
DOI 10.1111/bjp.12856
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Abstract

This paper investigates whether conspiracy theories arising during the COVID‐19 pandemic are linked to early trauma or a specific organization of the mind. Using the Reptilian conspiracy theory as an example, the paper proposes that belief in conspiracy theories can activate unresolved memories of trauma and serve as a mediator between the psyche and intrusive content. Classic psychoanalytic concepts, as well as more modern ideas from Britton and Steiner, are explored to understand the role of early trauma and inner object relations dynamics in the development of Belief in Reptilian Conspiracy Theories (BiCT). The concept of après‐coup is introduced to explain how newer responses to familiar psychic experiences may shape beliefs in conspiracies. Additionally, the paper proposes that belief in conspiracy theories can function as a psychic retreat. Two clinical cases are presented to illustrate these ideas while maintaining anonymity.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This psychoanalytic paper proposes that belief in Reptilian conspiracy theories can activate unresolved early trauma and serve as a mediator between the psyche and intrusive content, functioning as a psychic retreat. It illustrates these ideas with two clinical cases and argues that childhood trauma, humiliation, and specific object-relational dynamics may predispose individuals to overvalued conspiracy beliefs.

Key findings

  • Argues that Belief in Reptilian Conspiracy Theories (BiCT) is better understood in the two cases as an overvalued idea rather than a clinical delusion, using the DSM-V distinction between delusions and overvalued ideas.
  • Proposes that early trauma—particularly sexualized attacks and humiliation—and family dynamics involving a dominant, tyrannical opposite-sex parent and a compliant parent are projected onto the structure of conspiracy theories.
  • Suggests BiCT can function as a psychic retreat, protecting individuals from paranoid-schizoid and depressive anxieties; Hippolytus later showed movement toward depressive-position concern, while Atalanta used manic defences.
  • Presents two clinical cases—Hippolytus, seen for six years, and Atalanta, who began therapy 18 months before the COVID-19 pandemic—to illustrate these psychoanalytic claims.

Methods

  • Theoretical/psychoanalytic case-study paper with no systematic empirical design; it reviews concepts from Janet, Freud, Klein, Britton, and Steiner and presents clinical material.
  • Sample: two consenting patients from the author’s private practice, anonymized with Greek pseudonyms; NHS cases were not discussed due to confidentiality.
  • Analysis: interpretive linking of case narratives to psychoanalytic concepts, including a table comparing components of conspiracy theories (pattern, coalition, agency, threat, secrecy) with object-relations ideas.

Limitations

  • The paper does not state a formal limitations section; it notes prior informed consent, anonymity, and exclusion of NHS cases for confidentiality.
  • Evident from the text: the claims rest on two private-practice cases and the author’s interpretive clinical material, with no systematic sampling, comparison group, or independent outcome measurement.
  • Evident from the text: causal and generalizable claims are not empirically tested, and the paper itself calls for future research on links between specific family dynamics and selection of a particular BiCT.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1111/bjp.12856

Cites

45 of 45 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

3 of 26 cited sources checked · 3 supported · 0 flagged

  • Premisecitation

    Childhood victimization may be linked to non-clinical delusional ideation.

    “Additionally, current clinical research indicates that childhood victimization may be linked to non-clinical delusional ideation (Lataster et al., 2006).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lataster et al., 2006 source
  • Premisecitation

    Conspiracy theories contain an element of threat such that the alleged goals of the conspirators are harmful or deceptive.

    “Conspiracy theories contain an element of threat such that the alleged goals of the conspirators are harmful or deceptive”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites van Prooijen and Van Vugt (2018) source
  • Findingown data

    Many of Hippolytus's memories of parental violence had sexual content and elements of humiliation.

    “Many of these memories had sexual content and elements of humiliation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Interpretationreasoning

    Belief in conspiracy theories can function as a psychic retreat.

    “Additionally, the paper proposes that belief in conspiracy theories can function as a psychic retreat.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The parallels the author observed between patients' early experiences and the Reptilian conspiracy theory are meaningful evidence of a psychoanalytic link rather than coincidental.
    • Rests on an assumption: The Reptilian conspiracy theory is a suitable example from which to draw general conclusions about belief in conspiracy theories.
    • Rests on an assumption: Clinical material from two consenting patients can illustrate and support the proposed psychoanalytic mechanisms.
    • Rests on an assumption: Conspiracy theories are formed without strong evidence or logical reasoning.
  • Interpretationnone given

    Belief in conspiracy theories can activate unresolved memories of trauma.

    “the paper proposes that belief in conspiracy theories can activate unresolved memories of trauma and serve as a mediator between the psyche and intrusive content.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The parallels the author observed between patients' early experiences and the Reptilian conspiracy theory are meaningful evidence of a psychoanalytic link rather than coincidental.
    • Rests on an assumption: The Reptilian conspiracy theory is a suitable example from which to draw general conclusions about belief in conspiracy theories.
    • Rests on an assumption: Clinical material from two consenting patients can illustrate and support the proposed psychoanalytic mechanisms.
    • Rests on an assumption: Conspiracy theories are formed without strong evidence or logical reasoning.
  • May combine two claims. 18
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 49
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A fixed idea encompasses unprocessed material and contributes to the formation of dissociative processes.

    “Thus, a fixed idea encompasses unprocessed material and contributes to the formation of dissociative processes (Heim & Bühler, 2006).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Heim & Bühler, 2006 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingown data

    The author noticed parallels between some patients' early experiences and the characteristics of the Reptilian conspiracy theory.

    “However, as I delved into their cases, I noticed parallels between their early experience and the characteristic of this theory.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    In April 2020, during the early COVID-19 pandemic, the author encountered a few patients who shared the Reptilian conspiracy theory.

    “In April 2020, during the early days of the coronavirus pandemic, I encountered a few patients who shared un unconventional conspiracy theory that had gained significant attention on the internet.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingnone given

    Hippolytus reported a memory that at age 13 his mother came to his bed and attempted to masturbate him.

    “Another memory that has been hunting Hippolytus was an incident when he was 13 years old, and his mother came to his bed and attempted to masturbate him.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Hippolytus fell ill twice after his initial episode and did not go to work while sick.

    “Although he never got tested for COVID-19, he fell ill twice after his initial episode, taking time off and making it clear to me that he did not go to work while sick.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    After starting the new relationship, Atalanta spoke less about Reptilians and vaccines.

    “She spoke less about Reptilians and vaccines.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Hippolytus stopped discussing conspiracy theories and shifted his focus to the crisis, criticizing politicians and capitalists for their greed.

    “Gradually, he stopped discussing conspiracy theories and shifted his focus to the crisis, criticizing politicians and capitalists for their greed.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Hippolytus never got tested for COVID-19.

    “Although he never got tested for COVID-19, he fell ill twice after his initial episode, taking time off and making it clear to me that he did not go to work while sick.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    During the COVID-19 pandemic, Atalanta introduced David Icke's (2003) Reptilian conspiracy in her therapy sessions.

    “She spoke of new interests and introduced me to David Icke's (2003) Reptilian conspiracy.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    When the vaccine programme was successfully produced, Atalanta felt triumphant and reminded the therapist that she had warned him about it a year earlier.

    “When the vaccine program was successfully produced, she felt triumphant and reminded me that she had warned me about it a year ago.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    During the pandemic, Hippolytus denied the existence of COVID-19 and claimed that vaccines contained microchips.

    “He denied the existence of COVID-19 and claimed that the vaccines contained microchips.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Atalanta began a new relationship with someone who shared her views and talked about moving abroad to live in a self-sufficient commune.

    “On her return to work, Atalanta began a new relationship with someone who shared her views and talked about moving abroad to live in a self-sufficient commune where they could grow their own food.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Hippolytus felt trapped and powerless in his job.

    “A postgraduateeducated manager at a global corporation, he led a predictable life, disliking his job but feeling trapped and powerless to find a new one.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Atalanta rejected the therapist's attempts to link her pandemic experience and beliefs with her father's control over her diet and other aspects of her life.

    “Our relationship became strained, and she rejected my attempts to link her pandemic experience and beliefs with her father controlling her diet and other aspects of her life.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Hippolytus introduced the therapist to the Reptilian conspiracy theory.

    “He also assumed that I was in favour of governmental regulation and didn't believe in the Reptilian conspiracy theory that he introduced me to.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Atalanta did not believe that the COVID-19 virus existed.

    “While she didn't believe that the virus existed, she was worried that people would be forced to take a deadly vaccine.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingown data

    Hippolytus reported that since that incident he had been unable to feel sexual pleasure.

    “They have never talked about this incident, but Hippolytus has not being able to feel sexual pleasure ever since.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Atalanta was worried that people would be forced to take a deadly vaccine.

    “While she didn't believe that the virus existed, she was worried that people would be forced to take a deadly vaccine.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Hippolytus and Atalanta both had a dominant, tyrannical parent of the opposite sex and a compliant parent who allowed abuse.

    “The family dynamics of Hippolytus and Atalanta are similar, with both having a dominant, tyrannical parent of the opposite sex and a compliant one who allows abuse (coalition).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Atalanta obtained a false vaccine passport to travel during the pandemic.

    “She explained that obtaining A false vaccine passport was less difficult than I had imagined.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingnone given

    Hippolytus recalled childhood incidents of violence between his parents, some of which he observed through a gap.

    “Hippolytus recalled incidents of violence between his unmarried parents, some of it observed through the gap.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The concept of après-coup explains how newer responses to familiar psychic experiences may shape beliefs in conspiracies.

    “The concept of après-coup is introduced to explain how newer responses to familiar psychic experiences may shape beliefs in conspiracies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The Reptilian conspiracy theory is a suitable example from which to draw general conclusions about belief in conspiracy theories.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Beliefs have consequences: they arouse feelings, influence perceptions, and promote actions.

    “Britton states that beliefs have consequences; they arouse feelings, influence perceptions, and promote actions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Britton (2003, pp. 8-18) source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Belief is to psychic reality what perception is to material reality.

    “Britton himself considers 'beliefs to be to psychic reality what perception is to material reality' (p.11).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Britton (2003, pp. 8-18) source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Parts of the underlying fixed idea may develop in isolation or survive after the primary idea has disappeared.

    “These parts of the underlying fixed idea may even develop in isolation or may survive after the primary idea has disappeared.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Janet (1894)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationown data

    Atalanta believed that the therapist was being mindcontrolled.

    “It was then that I realized that in her mind, I was on the other side of a story, where she believed that I was being mindcontrolled, and that I was writing for people of my 'kind'.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Strong, long-standing beliefs are acquired through societal acculturation.

    “Britton (2003) suggests that strong, long-standing beliefs are acquired through societal acculturation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Britton (2003) source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Exposure to severe trauma can result in difficulties trusting others, annihilation or persecutory anxieties, and a pathological organization of the mind with preponderance of projective identification.

    “Exposure to severe trauma can result in difficulties trusting others, development of annihilation or persecutory anxieties, and a pathological organization of the mind with preponderance of projective identification (Steiner, 2003, p. 4).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Steiner, 2003, p. 4 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    BiCT can serve as a mediator between the psyche and intrusive content.

    “Using the Reptilian conspiracy theory as an example, I suggest that BiCT can serve as a mediator between the psyche and intrusive content, facilitating adaptation to reality while shielding against internal and external threats.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Two clinical cases can provide evidence for a general psychoanalytic mechanism linking BiCT to dissociated trauma.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The impact of a traumatic event is not fixed but can be shaped by subsequent experiences, because the subjective perception of trauma is not given once and for all.

    “The Freudian concept of Nachträglichkeit, which can be translated as deferred action, suggests that the impact of a traumatic event is not fixed but rather can be shaped by subsequent experiences.This is because the subjective perception of the trauma is not given once and for all (Bistoen, Vanheule, S. & Craps, 2014).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bistoen, Vanheule, S. & Craps, 2014 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationnone given

    Conspiracy theories may stem from pre-existing mistrust in the establishment.

    “On the other side, conspiracy theories may stem from pre-existing mistrust in establishment or a need to restore coherence in the face of destabilizing events.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationown data

    Belief in conspiracy theories (BiCT) can activate dissociated aspects of an individual's psyche that harbour unresolved memories of past trauma.

    “In this paper, I propose that BiCT can activate dissociated aspects of an individual's psyche that harbour unresolved memories of trauma from their past.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Exposure to internet content alone does not determine belief in the Reptilian conspiracy theory; some exposed people find it nonsensical while others find it plausible.
    • Rests on an assumption: Two clinical cases can provide evidence for a general psychoanalytic mechanism linking BiCT to dissociated trauma.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Obsessions stem from emotional shock and are linked to repression of homosexual, incestuous, or murderous fantasies.

    “According to Freud (Freud et al., 1966), obsessions stem from emotional shock, but unlike Janet, he linked them to repression of homosexual, incestuous, or murderous fantasies and highlighted the mechanism of repression of sexual material (Gay, 1995).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Freud et al., 1966

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Gay, 1995

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In paranoia, the symptom is caused by a return of the repressed idea, and distrust in other people is formed through projection rather than self-reproach.

    “In the case of paranoia, as Freud explained, the symptom is caused by a return of the repressed idea, but instead of self-reproach, distrust in other people is formed through projection (Strachey, 1958).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Strachey, 1958

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    These secondary ideas could have become activated when external circumstances matched familiar patterns.

    “These ideas could have become activated when external circumstances matched familiar patterns.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The childhood trauma and family dynamics reported by Hippolytus and Atalanta are accurate enough to support the psychoanalytic formulation.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    In the narratives of Hippolytus and Atalanta, hatred toward persecuting parents is combined with love, and humiliation coincides with feeling chosen and most loved.

    “In the narratives of Hippolytus and Atalanta, hatred towards their persecuting parents is combined with love, and a sense of humiliation coincides with a feeling of being chosen and therefore most loved.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Holding BiCT does not necessarily indicate a psychotic disorder, though it may be linked to some form of psychopathology.

    “While BiCT can be understood as an overvalued idea or EOB, holding such beliefs does not necessarily indicate a psychotic disorder, but it is possible that they may be linked to some form of psychopathology.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The omnipotence of adults as perceived by children is later attributed to Reptilians.

    “The omnipotence of adults, as perceived by children, is later attributed to the Reptilians as well.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Janet proposed that secondary fixed ideas may arise from associations, alongside primary fixed ideas.

    “Janet (1894) proposed that secondary fixed ideas may arise from associations, alongside primary fixed ideas.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Janet (1894)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Janet (1894) proposed that a fixed idea is the outcome of emotional shock experienced by an unprepared individual, leading to trauma.

    “According to Janet, a fixed idea is the outcome of emotional shock experienced by an unprepared individual, leading to trauma.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Janet (1894)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Belief, disbelief, or suspended belief have a protective function, safeguarding the psyche from dangerous phantasies or perceptions.

    “The belief, disbelief, or suspended belief similarly have a protective function, safeguarding the psyche from dangerous phantasies or perceptions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Britton (2003, pp. 8-18) source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    In Hippolytus and Atalanta, a Reptilian narrative incorporated their traumatic experience into their sense of self and identity.

    “This might have occurred in the case of Hippolytus and Atalanta, who acquired a Reptilian narrative that incorporated their traumatic experience into their sense of self and identity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Hippolytus and Atalanta are representative enough of people with BiCT for conclusions drawn from their cases to apply to BiCT formation more generally.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationown data

    Atalanta believed that the therapist was writing for people of her 'kind'.

    “It was then that I realized that in her mind, I was on the other side of a story, where she believed that I was being mindcontrolled, and that I was writing for people of my 'kind'.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Collective states of mind are more powerful than individual ones.

    “Collective states of mind are more powerful than individual ones, as groups can adopt extreme positions (Britton, 2010, p. 197).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Britton, 2010, p. 197 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The overvalued idea served as a defence mechanism against painful emotions associated with trauma but also became a source of distress and dysfunction.

    “The overvalued idea served as a defence mechanism against the painful emotions associated with the trauma, but it also became a source of their distress and dysfunction.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Some secondary fixed ideas seem to be simply disconnected parts of the primary fixed idea, or connect themselves with it by reasoning or association.

    “Some of these secondary ideas seem to be simply disconnected parts of the primary fixed idea, or they connect themselves with it easily by reasoning or association.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Janet (1894)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Society at large is viewed as a collective victim of a malicious depopulation plan, triggering annihilation anxiety.

    “Society at large is viewed as a collective victim of a malicious depopulation plan (secrecy), triggering annihilation anxiety (threat).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Hippolytus and Atalanta's family dynamics, along with the traumas they endured, might have been preserved in their minds as secondary ideas.

    “As I will explain later, Hippolytus and Atalanta's family dynamics, along with the traumas they endured, might have been preserved in their minds as secondary ideas.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The childhood trauma and family dynamics reported by Hippolytus and Atalanta are accurate enough to support the psychoanalytic formulation.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Through this mediating function, BiCT can shield against internal and external threats.

    “Using the Reptilian conspiracy theory as an example, I suggest that BiCT can serve as a mediator between the psyche and intrusive content, facilitating adaptation to reality while shielding against internal and external threats.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Two clinical cases can provide evidence for a general psychoanalytic mechanism linking BiCT to dissociated trauma.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    In pathological organizations, projective identification is confined to groups of objects constructed from the patient's experiences with people in their early environment.

    “Steiner further explains that in pathological organizations, projective identification is confined to groups of objects that may be 'constructed from the patient's experiences with people in their early environment' (p. 7).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Steiner

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Hostility toward a coalition or parental couple is turned into a persecutory belief.

    “The hostility towards a coalition/parental couple is turned into a persecutory belief”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The underpinning of a conspiracy theory is the mechanism of splitting, which requires division of self and object into good and bad with little or no integration between them.

    “The underpinning of a conspiracy theory is the mechanism of splitting that requires the division of both self and object into good and bad, with at first little or no integration between them.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The components of conspiracy theories share psychological similarities with psychoanalytic concepts such as splitting and projection.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Traumatic experiences with violence in the environment lead to internalization of violent and disturbed objects, which serve as receptacles for projection of the individual's own destructiveness.

    “He argues that 'traumatic experiences with violence in the environment lead to the internalization of violent and disturbed objects, which simultaneously serve as suitable receptacles for the projection of the individual's own destructiveness' (p.4).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Steiner, 2003 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The engine of the threat element in conspiracy theories is an unconscious phantasy expressing libidinal and aggressive impulses.

    “is an unconscious phantasy and its function of the mental expression of both libidinal and aggressive impulses.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The components of conspiracy theories share psychological similarities with psychoanalytic concepts such as splitting and projection.
54 of 54

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The parallels the author observed between patients' early experiences and the Reptilian conspiracy theory are meaningful evidence of a psychoanalytic link rather than coincidental.

    “However, as I delved into their cases, I noticed parallels between their early experience and the characteristic of this theory.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The Reptilian conspiracy theory is a suitable example from which to draw general conclusions about belief in conspiracy theories.

    “Using the Reptilian conspiracy theory as an example, the paper proposes that belief in conspiracy theories can activate unresolved memories of trauma and serve as a mediator between the psyche and intrusive content.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Clinical material from two consenting patients can illustrate and support the proposed psychoanalytic mechanisms.

    “Two clinical cases are presented to illustrate these ideas while maintaining anonymity.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Conspiracy theories are formed without strong evidence or logical reasoning.

    “In the context of conspiracy theories, beliefs are formed without strong evidence or logical reasoning, leading scholars to question their validity.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Exposure to internet content alone does not determine belief in the Reptilian conspiracy theory; some exposed people find it nonsensical while others find it plausible.

    “Although we are all exposed to the internet content, some people consider the Reptilian conspiracy being nonsensical, while others see it as a plausible theory.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The Reptilian conspiracy theory involves the notion that Reptilians are exploiting humanity.

    “the notion that Reptilians were exploiting humanity”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Two clinical cases can provide evidence for a general psychoanalytic mechanism linking BiCT to dissociated trauma.

    “To explore this hypothesis, I present two clinical cases obtained from my private practice”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The childhood trauma and family dynamics reported by Hippolytus and Atalanta are accurate enough to support the psychoanalytic formulation.

    “During our sessions, Atalanta would recount her personal history, particularly her brother's experiences, including their father's violence and negative comments about his girlishness and fragility.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The patients' retrospective accounts of early trauma accurately reflect events that contributed to their later BiCT.

    “Thinking of my patients' accounts of their experiences witnessing violence and being subjected to sexually informed attacks that left them feeling ridiculed and humiliated, I have come to believe that their early traumas may be the underlying cause of BiCT.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Hippolytus and Atalanta are representative enough of people with BiCT for conclusions drawn from their cases to apply to BiCT formation more generally.

    “This might have occurred in the case of Hippolytus and Atalanta, who acquired a Reptilian narrative that incorporated their traumatic experience into their sense of self and identity.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The components of conspiracy theories share psychological similarities with psychoanalytic concepts such as splitting and projection.

    “To demonstrate these dynamics, I have summarized the components of conspiracy theories as formulated by van Prooijen and Van Vugt (2018) and compared them with psychoanalytic concepts that, in my opinion, share some similarities (see Table 1).”
11 of 11

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

2 of the 47 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 7

  1. Freud S., 1966, Pre‐psycho‐analytic Publications and Unpublished Drafts
  2. Gay P., 1995, The Freud Reader
  3. Hume D., 1974, The Empiricists
  4. Janet P., 1894, Histoire d'une idée fixe, Revue Philosophique de la France et de l'Étranger, 37, 121
  5. Strachey J., 1958, Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume XII (1911–1913): The Case of Schreber, Papers on Technique and Other Works
  6. Wagner‐Egger P., 2007, The truth lies elsewhere: Correlates of belief in conspiracy theories, Revue internationale de psychologie sociale, 20, 31
  7. Ẑiẑek S., 2010, Living in the End Times

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Dixon, A. M.
Corresponding author
Dixon, Agnieszka M.
Venue
British Journal of Psychotherapy
Publisher
Wiley
Published
2023-07-25
Volume
39
Issue
4
Pages
663-681
ISSN
  • 0265-9883 (ISSN-L)
  • 1752-0118
DOI
10.1111/bjp.12856
OpenAlex
W4385274675
Semantic Scholar
b52736367a97a579ea9f2e4ef59fd9f8dfe491fa
Cited by
4
References
47
Citations by year
2026: 2 · 2025: 2
FWCI
1.09
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • British Journal of Psychotherapy (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Staff Publications Online (The Tavistock and Portman) (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychoanalysis and Psychopathology Research
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Misinformation and Its Impacts
  • Social Sciences › Cultural Studies › Psychoanalysis and Social Critique
Keywords
conspiracy theories, early trauma, psychic retreat, COVID-19 pandemic, psychoanalytic theory

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-17.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-17.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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