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Cited by 194Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional DevelopmentResilience and Mental HealthFamily Dynamics and Relationships

Long-term effects of parenting-focused preventive interventions to promote resilience of children and adolescents

Open access
Sandler, Irwin, Ingram, Alexandra, Wolchik, Sharlene, Tein, Jenn-Yun, Winslow, Emily·2015·Child Development Perspectives
DOI 10.1111/cdep.12126PMC PMC6407875
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Abstract

In this article, we address three questions concerning the long-term effects of parenting-focused preventive interventions: (a) Do prevention programs promote effective parenting in families facing normative stressors as well as those facing frequent adversity? (b) Do parenting programs prevent children's long-term problems? (c) Do changes in parenting mediate long-term effects of programs? We address these questions by summarizing evidence from 22 programs with randomized trials and followups of 3 years or longer. We describe in more detail two interventions for divorced and bereaved families, suggesting that they prevent a range of problems and promote a range of developmental competencies over a prolonged period. Program effects to strengthen parenting mediated many of these long-term outcomes.

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Registry

Crossref · 10.1111/cdep.12126

Cites

41 of 42 references verified1 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 46 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    Every one of the 22 reviewed programs reported a significant improvement in parenting at one assessment.

    “All of the 22 programs we reviewed reported significant effects to improve parenting at one assessment”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Ten of the 22 reviewed programs reported significant long-term direct effects on three or more outcomes.

    “10 programs reported significant long-term direct effects on three or more outcomes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Twenty of the 22 reviewed programs reported significant direct effects on child outcomes 3 to 15 years after participation.

    “Twenty of the 22 programs we reviewed reported significant direct effects on outcomes from 3 to 15 years following participation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Ten of the 22 reviewed programs found that some aspect of parenting improved and remained better 3 to 15 years after the program ended.

    “and 10 found improvements in some aspect of parenting that lasted 3–15 years after the program ended.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Internalizing problems at 11 months were associated with more frequent internalizing problems and internalizing disorders at six years.

    “Internalizing problems at 11months were associated with more frequent internalizing problems and internalizing disorders at six years.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 27
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 3

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Long-term direct effects increased self-regulation or self-esteem in 9 programs, health outcomes in 4, and academic success in 4.

    “and to increase indicators of positive developmental competencies such as self-regulation/self-esteem (9 programs), health outcomes (4 programs), and academic success (4 programs).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Long-term direct effects reduced externalizing problems in 12 programs, internalizing problems in 7, substance use or abuse in 8, and high-risk sexual behavior in 7.

    “Significant long-term direct effects were found to reduce externalizing problems (12 programs), internalizing problems (7 programs), substance use/abuse (8 programs), and high-risk sexual behavior (7 programs)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The reviewed programs strengthened various parenting behaviors, including positive interactions, discipline, communication, problem solving, school involvement, monitoring and discussion of high-risk behavior, while reducing parent-child conflict and aversive interactions.

    “Programs reported strengthening a range of parenting behaviors, including increased positive interactions, effective discipline, open communication, problem solving, school involvement, monitoring and talking about high-risk behavior, as well as reducing conflict between parents and children and aversive interactions between parents and children.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    The New Beginnings Program's parenting effect was larger for participants at higher risk at the start, with effect sizes from .23 to .34 across parenting measures.

    “with the effect of the NBP being larger for those who were at higher risk at the start of the program (d range of .23 −.34 across measures of parenting; 19).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [19] Sigal, 2012, Enhancing youth outcomes following parental divorce: A longitudinal study of the effects of the New Beginnings Program on educational and occupational goals, Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Only one reviewed program showed significant parenting effects but no direct or indirect long-term effects on children's outcomes.

    “Only one program reported significant effects on parenting but failed to demonstrate either direct or indirect long-term effects on children’s outcomes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Emerging adults in the New Beginnings Program spent less time in jail and used fewer psychological services than controls.

    “Also, emerging adults in the NBP spent less time in jail and used fewer services for psychological problems than those in the control condition (25).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [25] Herman, 2014, Cost-benefit analysis of a preventive intervention for divorced families: Reduction in mental health and justice system service use costs 15 years later, Prevention Science source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The Family Bereavement Program strengthened positive parenting at posttest, which was associated with fewer internalizing and externalizing problems at 11 months.

    “As shown in Figure 2, the FBP strengthened positive parenting at posttest, which in turn was associated with fewer internalizing and externalizing problems at the 11-month followup.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    For the high-risk group, effect sizes ranged from d = .45 to .58 (median .52) for mental health problems, .20 to .30 for drug and alcohol use, and .27 to .47 (mean .35) for competencies.

    “The effect sizes for the high-risk group ranged from d = .45-.58 (median = .52) for mental health problems and .20-.30 for drug and alcohol use; the effect size for competencies ranged from d = .27-.47 (mean = .35).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    In a third study, improved parenting reduced short-term child problems, which were associated with positive long-term outcomes, supporting a cascading effects model.

    “In a third study (31), which supports a cascading effects model, improvements in parenting reduced children’s problems in the short term, and these, in turn, were associated with positive outcomes for children in the long term.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [31] McClain, 2010, Developmental cascade effects of the New Beginnings Program on adolescent adaptation outcomes, Development and Psychopathology source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Seven reviewed programs found that parenting mediated program effects on outcomes in more than one domain, including externalizing and substance use in 4 programs and internalizing and externalizing problems in 3.

    “Seven programs reported that parenting mediated program effects on outcomes in more than one domain, such as externalizing and substance use (4 programs) and internalizing and externalizing problems (3 programs).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    For males, the New Beginnings Program reduced substance use disorders from adolescence to emerging adulthood (d = .40), polydrug use (d = .55), other drug use in the past year (d = .61), and substance use problems in the past six months (d = .50).

    “For males, it also reduced the number of substance use disorders from adolescence to emerging adulthood (d = .40), polydrug use (d = .55), and other drug use (d =.61) in the past year, and substance use problems (d = .50) in the past six months.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Parenting mediated long-term program effects on substance use or abuse in 6 programs, health outcomes in 2, sexual behavior in 3, academic performance in 3, and competence in 3.

    “substance use/abuse (6 programs), health outcomes (2 programs), sexual behavior (3 programs), academic performance (3 programs), and competence (3 programs).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    For both programs, positive parenting effects were maintained six years after the program, with the Family Bereavement Program showing a main effect of d = .33.

    “For both programs, positive effects on parenting were maintained six years after the program (for the FBP, d = .33 main effect; 18)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [18] Hagan, 2012, Strengthening effective parenting practices over the long term: Effects of a preventive intervention for parentally bereaved families, Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    At the six-year follow-up, the Family Bereavement Program reduced parent, youth, and teacher reports of externalizing problems (d = .36) and diagnosed externalizing disorders (15.4% vs 27.4%; adjusted OR = .28), and reduced teacher-reported internalizing problems (d = .46).

    “In the six-year followup, the FBP reduced parents’, youth’s, and teachers’ reports of externalizing problems (d = .36) and diagnosed externalizing disorders (15.4% versus 27.4%, adjusted OR = .28) as well as teachers’ reports of internalizing problems (d = .46).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    At the six-year follow-up, the New Beginnings Program reduced diagnosed mental disorders by 37% (14.8% vs 23.5% controls; OR = 2.70), reduced number of sexual partners (d = .37), and increased GPA (d = .26).

    “At the six-year followup (when the youth were adolescents), the NBP significantly reduced diagnosed mental disorders by 37% (14.8% NBP versus 23.5% literature controls, Odds Ratio [OR] = 2.70) and the number of sexual partners of the youth (d = .37), and increased grade point average (GPA; d = .26).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    For high-risk entrants, the New Beginnings Program increased positive attitudes toward warm parenting and decreased positive attitudes toward harsh parenting.

    “Furthermore, for those who entered the program at high risk, the NBP led to more positive attitudes toward warm parenting and less positive attitudes toward harsh parenting, suggesting cross-generational benefits of the program (27).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [27] Mahrer, 2014, Effects of a preventive parenting intervention for divorced families on the intergenerational transmission of parenting attitudes in young adult offspring, Child Development source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    The Family Bereavement Program increased youth self-esteem, grades for younger children, and educational aspirations for children with fewer baseline behavior problems, and reduced continuing distressing grief (d = .41).

    “The program also led to higher youth self-esteem, grades (for younger children), and educational aspirations (for children with fewer behavior problems at baseline; 20), and to less continuing distressing grief (d = .41; 28).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [20] Schoenfelder, 2014, Effects of the Family Bereavement Program on academic outcomes, educational expectations and job aspirations 6 years later: The mediating role of parenting and youth mental health problems, Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [28] Sandler, 2010, Long-term effects of the Family Bereavement Program on multiple indicators of grief in parentally bereaved children and adolescents, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    In a second study, improved parent-child relationship quality at posttest mediated increases in children's coping efficacy at six months and increases in coping efficacy and active coping at six years.

    “In a second study (23), improvements in the quality of the parent-child relationship at posttest mediated increases in children’s coping efficacy at the six-month followup and increases in coping efficacy and active coping at the six-year followup.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [23] Velez, 2011, Protecting children from the consequences of divorce: A longitudinal study of the effects of parenting on children's coping processes, Child Development source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    New Beginnings Program effects on mother-child relationship at posttest were related to later decreases in children's internalizing problems at 3 and 6 months, which were related to increased self-esteem and decreased internalizing disorder symptoms at six years.

    “Program effects on parenting (i.e., mother-child relationship) at posttest were related to subsequent decreases in children’s internalizing problems (at the 3- and 6-month followups), which in turn were related to subsequent increases in self-esteem and decreases in symptoms of internalizing disorders in adolescence (at the six-year followup; see Figure 1).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    New Beginnings Program changes in effective discipline at posttest were associated with decreased externalizing problems at 3 and 6 months, which were related to decreased externalizing disorder symptoms and substance use and improved GPA at six years.

    “Changes in parenting (i.e., effective discipline) at posttest were associated with decreased externalizing problems at the 3- and 6-month followups, which in turn were related to decreases in symptoms of externalizing disorders and substance use, and improvements in GPA at the six-year followup.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    For youth at greater risk at entry, the New Beginnings Program reduced externalizing problems, internalizing problems, and substance use, and increased competencies including self-esteem, coping efficacy, educational goals, and job aspirations.

    “For youth who were at greater risk when they entered the program (i.e., those who had more externalizing problems and more stressful family environments; 21, 22), the NBP reduced externalizing problems, internalizing problems, and substance use, and increased competencies, including self-esteem, coping efficacy, educational goals, and job aspirations (13, 23).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [21] Dawson-McClure, 2004, Risk as a moderator of the effects of prevention programs for children from divorced families: A six-year longitudinal study, Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [22] Tein, 2013, Development of a brief parent-report risk index for children following parental divorce, Journal of Family Psychology source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [13] Wolchik, 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The review covered 22 prevention programs that each targeted parenting, used a randomized comparison group, showed a significant parenting effect at one or more assessments, and measured child outcomes at least three years after the intervention ended.

    “Our review includes 22 programs (described in Table S, available online) that had a component targeting parenting and a randomized comparison condition, demonstrated a significant effect on parenting at one or more assessments, and tested effects on children’s problems or competencies three or more years after the intervention ended.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A negative path between internalizing problems and substance use is consistent with prior reports that internalizing problems predict lower levels of problem behavior and may reflect a lower likelihood of high-risk behavior or association with deviant peers.

    “A negative path between internalizing problems and substance use is consistent with previous reports that internalizing problems predict lower levels of problem behaviors and may reflect a lower likelihood that those with internalizing problems will engage in high-risk behavior or associate with deviant peers (34, 35).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [34] Rogosch, 2010, From child maltreatment to adolescent cannabis abuse and dependence: A developmental cascade model, Development and Psychopathology source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [35] Burt, 2008, The interplay of social competence and psychopathology over 20 years: Testing transactional and cascade models, Child Development source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The Family Check-Up reduced conflict in families of youth entering high school, which reduced involvement with deviant peers, and this mediated reduced externalizing problems up to seven years later.

    “the Family Check-Up, a brief, motivation-based parenting program, reduced conflict in families of youth in transition to high school, which reduced involvement with deviant peers, and this in turn mediated program effects to reduce externalizing problems up to seven years later (12).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [12] Van Ryzin, 2012, The impact of a family-centered intervention on the ecology of adolescent antisocial behavior: Modeling developmental sequelae and trajectories during adolescence, Development and Psychopathology source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationnone given

    Evidence of long-term effects of prevention parenting programs provides a strong scientific foundation for research to develop systems to disseminate and implement such programs.

    “Evidence of the long-term effects of prevention parenting programs provides a strong scientific foundation for research to develop systems to disseminate and implement such programs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Children in families affected by divorce or parental death are at increased risk for later problems, and effective parenting is a major protective factor correlated with better outcomes.

    “Children in families who experience these disruptions are at increased risk for problems years later; effective parenting is a major protective factor that correlates with more optimal outcomes for children (15, 16).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [15] Sandler, 2012 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [16] Sandler, 2003, The Family Bereavement Program: Efficacy evaluation of a theory-based prevention program for parentally bereaved children and adolescents, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In a family-focused preventive intervention with poor rural African American families, improved parent-child communication led youth to internalize parents' norms and expectations about high-risk behavior, which mediated reduced high-risk sexual behavior and substance use six years later.

    “a family-focused preventive intervention with poor, rural, African American families (11) strengthened communication between parents and children, which led to youth internalizing parents’ norms and expectations about high-risk behavior, and this in turn mediated program effects to reduce high-risk sexual behavior and substance use six years later.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [11] Murry, 2014, Intervention induced changes in perceptions of parenting and risk opportunities among rural African American youths, Journal of Child and Family Studies source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The negative relation between externalizing and internalizing problems in the Family Bereavement Program sample requires replication and reinforces the need to understand possible unexpected intervention effects across development.

    “The negative relation in the FBP sample between externalizing problems at 11months and internalizing problems six years later is surprising and requires replication, but reinforces the need to understand possible unexpected effects of interventions across development.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    If parenting plays a causal role in children's development, then promoting effective parenting should foster healthy outcomes and reduce pathological outcomes across all developmental phases.

    “If parenting plays a causal role in children’s development, then promoting effective parenting should foster healthy outcomes and reduce pathological outcomes across all phases of development (1, 7).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [1] Collins, 2000, Contemporary research on parenting: The case for nature and nurture, American Psychologist source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [7] Cicchetti, 2002, Editorial: Prevention and intervention science: Contributions to developmental theory, Development and Psychopathology source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The review extended the follow-up period to three years to increase the chance of assessing outcomes that persist across developmental periods.

    “We chose to extend the time period to three years to increase the likelihood of assessing outcomes that last across developmental periods.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
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Authors
Sandler, I., Ingram, A., Wolchik, S., Tein, J.-Y., & Winslow, E.
Affiliations
Arizona State University (US)
Corresponding author
Sandler, Irwin
ORCID
Venue
Child Development Perspectives
Publisher
Oxford University Press (OUP)
Published
2015-08-07
Volume
9
Issue
3
Pages
164-171
ISSN
  • 1750-8592 (ISSN-L)
  • 1750-8606
DOI
10.1111/cdep.12126
PMC
PMC6407875
OpenAlex
W2134818813
Cited by
191
References
41
Citations by year
2026: 20 · 2025: 17 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 23 · 2022: 25 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 15 · 2018: 21 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 10 · 2015: 1
FWCI
17.38
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
academic.oup.com/pages/standard-publication-reuse-rights (vor)
Locations
  • Child Development Perspectives (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders
  • National Institute of Drug Abuse (R01 DAO26874)
  • National Institute of Mental Health (2R01 MH 049155-11A1)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Resilience and Mental Health
  • Social Sciences › Demography › Family Dynamics and Relationships
Keywords
child resilience, adolescents, long-term effects, parenting effectiveness, family adversity, divorce, bereavement, developmental competence

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