Academic Achievement Trajectories of Homeless and Highly Mobile Students: Resilience in the Context of Chronic and Acute Risk

May combine two claims.

Among homeless children, factors related to resilience include self-regulation, parenting quality, health, and complex interplay among factors.

“Specifically among homeless children, these factors include self-regulation (Buckner, Mezzacappa, & Beardslee, 2003; Obradović, 2010), parenting quality (Miliotis, Sesma, & Masten, 1999), health (Cutuli, Herbers, Rinaldi, Masten, & Oberg, 2010), and complex interplay among factors (Herbers et al., 2011).”

• cites Buckner, Mezzacappa, & Beardslee, 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Obradović, 2010 sourceSupported
• cites Miliotis, Sesma, & Masten, 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

During years when students were identified as homeless or highly mobile, their math and reading achievement was lower and their math growth was slower.

“Math and reading achievement were lower and growth in math was slower in years of HHM identification, suggesting acute consequences of residential instability.”

May combine two claims.

Across third through eighth grades, students in higher-risk groups had lower academic achievement, with the ordering from highest to lowest achievement being General, reduced-price meals, free meals, and homeless or highly mobile.

“Achievement was lower as a function of rising risk status (General > RM > FM > HHM).”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The four risk categories form an ordered continuum from highest to lowest risk, with homeless or highly mobile highest, followed by free meals, reduced-price meals, and general.

May combine two claims.

The achievement gaps between homeless or highly mobile students and lower-risk students either remained stable or grew larger over the study period.

“Achievement gaps appeared stable or widened between HHM students and lower-risk groups.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The four risk categories form an ordered continuum from highest to lowest risk, with homeless or highly mobile highest, followed by free meals, reduced-price meals, and general.

May combine two claims.

For math, 1,637 HHM students (44.9%) consistently scored within or above one standard deviation below the national norms; 1,454 (39.9%) scored below that mark at all available points; and 553 (15.2%) had at least one score above and one below it at different times.

“Similar ratios emerge when this threshold was applied to math achievement: 1,637 (44.9%) HHM students consistently scored within or above one standard deviation below the National norms; 1,454 (39.9%) scored below that mark for all available test scores; and 553 (15.2%) students had at least one score above and one score below this mark at different points in time.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Almost 75% of students were in one of three low-income groups, and 13.8% were HHM at some point across the six years.

“Consistent with other large urban districts (Fantuzzo & Perlman, 2007), almost 75% of the students were in one of the three low-income groups, and 13.8% were HHM at some point across the 6 years considered in this analysis.”

• cites Fantuzzo & Perlman, 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

In the African American-only post-hoc analysis, math results did not change: the model with intercept and quadratic trajectory effects had weight > 0.99, and all other models had weight < 0.01.

“Results did not change for math achievement (weight of evidence > 0.99 for model with intercept and quadratic trajectory effects of risk group: weights of all other models considered: < 0.01).”

May combine two claims.

For both math and reading, the best-fitting static risk models had a quadratic polynomial trend over time and included both intercept and trajectory effects.

“For both math and reading, the best-fitting models had the quadratic polynomial trend over time. The best fitting models also had both intercept and trajectory effects.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

African American students made up 68.7% of the HHM group.

“African American students, in particular, comprised the majority (68.7%) of the HHM group.”

May combine two claims.

In the African American-only post-hoc reading analysis, the model with intercept and quadratic trajectory effects was adopted (weight = 0.74); the intercept-only model had weight 0.26; all other models had weight < 0.01.

“For reading achievement, the model that contained intercept and quadratic trajectory effects of risk group was again adopted (weight = 0.74). The model that contained only an intercept effect of risk group with quadratic change had a higher weight when only African American students were considered (weight = 0.26). All other models provided poor relative fit (all weights < 0.01).”

May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

In math, each income-based comparison group had a higher third-grade intercept than the HHM group; the General group had the highest intercept, followed by Reduced and then Free.

“Focusing on the first column, each intercept estimate is positive, indicating that each comparison group had a higher intercept than the HHM group.”

• Also stated in: § Static risk models of academic achievement among HHM and different income groups · plain

  “The General group had the highest intercept, followed by the Reduced group and then the Free group.”

May combine two claims.

Male students, students receiving English language learner or special education services, and students with poorer attendance had lower initial reading achievement.

“Male students (t = −2.99), students receiving special services (ELL: t = −9.07; Special Education: t = −18.17), and students with poorer attendance (t = 2.62) all had lower initial levels of reading achievement.”

May combine two claims.

In reading, all comparison groups had negative added linear slope values, indicating slower linear increase than the HHM group; General and Reduced had larger quadratic terms than HHM (t = 0.83 and 1.50).

“Regarding the polynomials, the Linear Slope column in the Risk portion indicates all added values are negative, meaning the groups had a slower linear increase than the HHM group. However, the General and Reduced groups had larger quadratic terms than the HHM group, indicating curves that did not slow down as quickly over time (t = 0.83 and t = 1.50, respectively).”

May combine two claims.

In reading, the intercept was lower when HHM was occurring (0.80; t = −3.33), indicating overall deterioration; unlike math, no polynomial components varied by earlier HHM status.

“Similar to the results for math, the intercept was lower when HHM was occurring (−0.80; t = −3.33) indicating an overall deterioration. Unlike the results for math, the best fitting model did not have polynomial components that varied as a function of earlier HHM-status.”

May combine two claims.

For reading, 1,644 HHM students (45.0%) scored within or above one standard deviation below the national norm mean at all available points; 1,453 (39.8%) scored below that threshold at all points; and 553 (15.2%) scored above and below it at different times.

“Underscoring this variability, 1,644 (45.0%) of the HHM students demonstrated resilience as defined by scoring within or above one standard deviation below the mean of the NALT/CALT National reading achievement norms for all available data points, and 1,453 (39.8%) students scored below that threshold for all data points, and 553 (15.2%) students had scores that were above and below this threshold”

May combine two claims.

In math, when HHM was occurring, the intercept decreased by 1.78 (t = −3.79), the linear component increased by 1.18 (t = 2.62), and the quadratic component decreased by 0.22 (t = −2.44), producing an overall deceleration of growth, especially in later grades.

“Focusing on the Intercept column, when HHM was occurring there was a decrease in the intercept of −1.78 (t = −3.79) indicating a deterioration in the overall level of the growth curve. As for the polynomials, though there was an increase in the linear component when HHM was occurring (1.18; t = 2.62), and there was a decrease in the quadratic component (−0.22; t = −2.44). The negative sign of the”

May combine two claims.

Relative to white students, African American and Asian students had lower reading achievement at intercept, and Asian students showed differences in reading quadratic growth.

“Relative to white students, African American students (t = −2.88) and Asian students (t = −4.78) had lower reading achievement at intercept, and Asian students showed differences in reading achievement quadratic growth (t = 2.39).”

May combine two claims.

In math, the General group had a faster linear increase than the HHM group (t = 2.00) and a less concave quadratic effect (t = 1.80).

“Most notably, the General group had a much faster linear increase than the HHM group (t = 2.00) and a less concave quadratic effect (t = 1.80).”

May combine two claims.

Children who move frequently are more likely to experience poverty, homelessness, and other risks, while children who experience homelessness are more likely than others to have moved frequently and to have many other adversities.

“Children who move frequently are more likely to experience poverty, homelessness and other risk factors, while children who experience homelessness are more likely than others to have changed residences frequently and have high levels of other adversities (Rog & Buckner, 2007; Wood, Halfon, Scarlata, Newacheck, & Nessim, 1993).”

• cites Rog & Buckner, 2007Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Wood, Halfon, Scarlata, Newacheck, & Nessim, 1993Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Math, spelling, and reading achievement scores were lower for homeless school-age children than for housed classmates, and this disparity was only partly explained by differences in school attendance.

“Rubin and colleagues (1996) contrasted homeless and housed school-age children from the same classroom. Math, spelling, and reading achievement scores were lower for the homeless group, a disparity that was only partially explained by differences in school attendance.”

• cites Rubin and colleagues (1996)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Whether a child was staying in a shelter did not predict academic achievement beyond race, gender, and age.

“Whether the child was staying in a shelter did not predict academic achievement beyond race, gender, and age.”

• cites Buckner, Bassuk, and Weinreb (2001) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Homeless students had lower math and reading achievement in the year following a shelter stay compared to low-income housed school-aged children, and this difference disappeared five years later after the homeless group had been re-housed.

“Rafferty, Shinn, and Weitzman (2004) found lower levels of math and reading achievement in the year following a shelter stay for homeless students compared to low-income, housed school-aged children. This difference disappeared five years later, after the homeless group had been re-housed.”

• cites Rafferty, Shinn, and Weitzman (2004) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Ethnic minority children are overrepresented among low-income groups, and income differences are related to Black-White achievement gaps.

“Furthermore, ethnic minority children are overrepresented among low family income groups, and these income differences relate to Black-White achievement gaps (Magnuson & Duncan, 2006).”

• cites Magnuson & Duncan, 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Homelessness and high residential mobility among low-income families are widespread and pose serious threats to learning and achievement, endangering efforts to reduce achievement disparities.

“Homelessness and high residential mobility among low-income families pose serious threats to learning and achievement and occur on a widespread scale that endangers efforts to address achievement disparities (National Research Council and Institute of Medicine, 2010; Obradović et al., 2009).”

• cites National Research Council and Institute of Medicine, 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Obradović et al., 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Homelessness predicted lower literacy and science achievement among 11,835 second-grade students in a large urban district, and this finding persisted after controlling for gender, ethnicity, out-of-home placement, child maltreatment, and birth-related risk.

“Fantuzzo and Perlman (2007) found that homelessness predicted lower levels of literacy and science achievement among 11,835 students from a 2nd grade cohort in a large, urban school district. This finding persisted when controlling for gender, ethnicity, out of home placement, child maltreatment, and any birth-related risk (inadequate prenatal care, premature birth, or low birth weight).”

• cites Fantuzzo and Perlman (2007) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Only two analyses have investigated the impact of homelessness on children's achievement over time, and these studies have produced conflicting results.

“To our knowledge, only two analyses have investigated the impact of homelessness on children’s achievement over time, and these studies have produced conflicting results.”

May combine two claims.

Residential mobility is linked with lower academic achievement, more school problems, and higher rates of grade retention.

“Residential mobility is linked with lower levels of academic achievement, more problems at school, and increased rates of grade retention.”

• cites Ingersoll, Scamman, and Eckerling (1989) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Simpson & Fowler, 1994 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Wood, et al., 1993 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

There is a socioeconomic-status-related gap in math achievement that widened with age from age 7 through 15.

“Caro, McDonald, and Wilms (2009) found an SES-related gap in math achievement that widened with age from age 7 through 15.”

• cites Caro, McDonald, and Wilms (2009)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Students with more residential or school moves in the past school year had lower reading and math achievement in grades 1 through 12, and this difference remained after controlling for socioeconomic status.

“Ingersoll, Scamman, and Eckerling (1989) found that students with a higher number of residential or school moves over the past school year had lower levels of reading and math achievement in grades 1 through 12. This difference persisted when controlling for student socioeconomic status.”

• cites Ingersoll, Scamman, and Eckerling (1989) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

A risk gradient emerged: lower-income groups showed progressively lower achievement, and the HHM group underperformed even the lowest-income group.

“As expected, a risk gradient emerged in which students in the lower-income groups showed progressively lower levels of achievement, and the HHM group underperformed even the lowest-income group.”

May combine two claims.

Children identified as homeless or highly mobile at any point had lower initial achievement than the poverty group, and the poverty group had lower initial achievement than students who were neither poor nor homeless or highly mobile.

“They found effects consistent with a continuum of chronic risk: children identified as HHM at any point had lower initial levels of achievement relative to those in the poverty group, and those in the poverty group had lower initial achievement scores relative to those who had been neither poor nor HHM.”

• cites Obradović and colleagues (2009)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Covariates were included in all models to control for factors related to both achievement and risk.

“A number of covariates were included in all models to control for factors related to both achievement and risk (National Research Council, 2002; Obradović, et al., 2009; Sirin, 2005).”

• cites National Research Council, 2002Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Obradović, et al., 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Sirin, 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Linear mixed modeling includes students with at least one observed score, but predictor scores must not be missing.

“LMM includes students with at least one observed score, but predictor scores must not be missing.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The missing data mechanism in the district dataset is of a type that permits valid inferences from the linear mixed modeling analyses.

May combine two claims.

Differences in achievement growth over time were less consistent, appearing for two cohorts; when they occurred, students in the poverty and homeless or highly mobile groups showed slower growth.

“Differences in achievement growth over time were less consistent, appearing for two cohorts. However, when they did occur, students in the poverty and HHM groups showed slower growth.”

• cites Obradović and colleagues (2009)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The accelerated longitudinal design used all available information and reduced selection bias.

“The accelerated longitudinal design included all available information and minimized selection biases.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Resilience is viewed as the product of complex processes involving individual factors, family functioning, culture, and the child's broader ecology throughout development.

“This is not surprising as resilience is viewed as the product of complex processes that involve individual factors, family functioning, aspects of culture, and the child’s broader ecology throughout development (Luthar, 2006; Masten, 2007; Masten, et al., 2009; Ungar, 2011; Yates, et al., 2003).”

• cites Luthar, 2006Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Masten, 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Masten, et al., 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Most homeless or highly mobile students showed achievement in the average range or higher, and factors such as better attendance, female sex, majority racial group, and not qualifying for English language learner services only partly explained the variability in achievement.

“Most HHM students showed competent levels of academic achievement (in the average range or higher), and factors like having better attendance, female sex, being of the majority racial group, and not qualifying for ELL services only partly accounted for the observed variability in achievement.”

• cites Obradović (2009) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The HHM group had the smallest number of complete cases (41.4% reading, 38.5% math), followed by Free Lunch (56.7% reading, 54.6% math), Reduced-Price Meals (60.6% reading, 57.2% math), and General (71.2% reading, 70.1% math).

“The HHM group had the smallest number of complete cases (41.4% for reading; 38.5% for math), followed by the Free Lunch group (56.7% reading; 54.6% math), the Reduced-Price Meals group (60.6% reading; 57.2% math), and the General group (71.2% reading; 70.1% math).”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The missing data mechanism is missing at random or missing completely at random.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The weight of evidence denotes the probability that a model is the most plausible among the set.

“The weight of evidence was calculated, which denotes the probability that a model is the most plausible of the set.”

• cites Burnham & Anderson, 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The Computer Adaptive Levels Tests are nationally normed adaptive tests calibrated to each student's achievement level.

“Students completed the reading and math portions of the Computer Adaptive Levels Tests (CALT) (Northwest Evaluation Association, 2005), a nationally normed adaptive test calibrated to each student’s achievement level.”

• cites Northwest Evaluation Association, 2005Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Valid inferences depend on the type of missing data mechanism.

“Valid inferences are predicated on the type of missing data mechanism, described below.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The missing data mechanism in the district dataset is of a type that permits valid inferences from the linear mixed modeling analyses.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The attendance variable, the overall proportion of days attended, reflects attendance without over-penalizing homeless or highly mobile students who move into or away from the district during the school year.

“Given our emphasis on HHM students, we computed a variable reflecting the overall proportion of days attended (total number of days attended/total number of days enrolled). This approach is employed by MPS research staff to reflect students’ attendance without over-penalizing HHM students who are more likely to move into or away from the district during the school year.”

May combine two claims.

Factors such as attendance rates, sex, race, and receiving special services were sometimes related to achievement differences among homeless or highly mobile students, but much variability remained after accounting for them.

“Factors such as differences in attendance rates, sex, race, and receiving special services were sometimes related to achievement differences among HHM students. However, a great deal of variability in achievement remained even when these factors were accounted for.”

• cites Obradović (2009) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Model fit was evaluated using AIC, where the lowest AIC indicates the best fit and AIC differences reflect relative goodness of fit.

“We evaluated model fit (plausibility) based on the Akaike information criteria (AIC; Akaike, 1973, 1974). In a model set, the model with the lowest AIC has the best fit, and differences in AIC reflect relative goodness of fit.”

• cites Akaike, 1973, 1974Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

For math, the intercept and trajectory change as HHM status changes; growth in math slowed when students were identified as HHM the previous year.

“For math, the intercept and trajectory change as HHM-status changes. Specifically, growth in math slowed when students were identified as HHM the previous year.”

May combine two claims.

The results corroborate past findings of lower academic achievement for HHM students, both in single grades or time points and longitudinally as a marker of chronic risk.

“These results corroborate past findings showing lower levels of academic achievement for HHM students, either in a single grade or at a single point in time (Adam & Chase-Lansdale, 2002; Buckner, 2008; Fantuzzo & Perlman, 2007; Rubin, et al., 1996) or when considered longitudinally as a marker of chronic risk (Obradović, et al., 2009).”

• cites Adam & Chase-Lansdale, 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Buckner, 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Fantuzzo & Perlman, 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

HHM status frequently represents multiple risks to development while also constraining the child's ability to adapt successfully.

“In sum, HHM-status frequently represents multiple risks to development while also constraining the child’s ability to adapt successfully.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Growth in math achievement may be more vulnerable to disruption because math instruction in elementary and middle school involves qualitatively different operations.

“Growth in math achievement may be more vulnerable to disruption because math instruction in elementary and middle school involves a number of qualitatively different operations.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The results can be interpreted as showing improvement following a previous year in which students were not HHM.

“On the other hand, the results can be interpreted as showing an improvement following a previous year in which students were not HHM.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Negative life events may interfere with students' ability to attend to instruction, hampering achievement growth generally.

“Negative life events may interfere with students’ ability to attend to instruction, hampering achievement growth generally.”

May combine two claims.

Children who experience residential mobility or homelessness experience disruptions in daily routines, lesson plans and assessments at new schools, social supports, relationships, coping resources, and family functioning.

“Children who experience residential mobility or homelessness experience disruptions in daily routines, lesson plans and assessments at new schools, social supports, relationships and coping resources in community settings, and impairments in family functioning (Adam & Chase-Lansdale, 2002; National Research Council and Institute of Medicine, 2010).”

• cites Adam & Chase-Lansdale, 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites National Research Council and Institute of Medicine, 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The functioning of adaptive systems in the child's life, and how they support or impede success in key developmental tasks, will better account for differences in child success.

“The functioning of adaptive systems in the child’s life, and how they support or impede success in key developmental tasks, will better account for differences in child success (Masten, et al., 2009; Yates, et al., 2003).”

• cites Masten, et al., 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Yates, et al., 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Given the nature of linear mixed model analyses, the differences found in this study would likely be greater if all data were complete.

“Given the nature of LMM analyses, the differences found in the current study would likely be greater if all data were complete.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The missing data mechanism is missing at random or missing completely at random.

May combine two claims.

National norm lines approximate the mean achievement of the moderate-risk group; higher-risk groups (HHM and Free Meals) underperform the norms, while the lower-risk group over-performs.

“Considering Figures 1 and 2, national norm lines appear to approximate the mean levels of achievement for the moderate-risk group of students. The mean achievement of the higher-risk groups (HHM and Free Meals) underperform relative to the norms while the lower risk group relatively over-performs.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The national achievement norms are based on a representative sample of children across all levels of risk.

May combine two claims.

HHM status confers additional and more acute risk for disruption to achievement and appears to negatively affect growth, at least in math.

“Additionally, HHM-status confers an additional and more acute risk for disruption to achievement, and appears to have a negative impact on growth, at least for math achievement.”

May combine two claims.

Growth differences emerged for HHM and other groups across third through eighth grades, most pronounced between HHM and General in math and between HHM and Reduced Price Meals in reading.

“Growth differences emerged for HHM and other groups across 3rd through 8th grades, with the most pronounced effect for growth differences between the HHM and General groups in math, and between the HHM and Reduced Price Meals groups in reading.”

May combine two claims.

Missing data remained an issue, and HHM students had higher rates of missing data than other students.

“However, missing data still posed an issue. HHM students had higher rates of missing data compared to other students.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The missing data mechanism is missing at random or missing completely at random.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Life events such as HHM experiences may disrupt math achievement more acutely by interfering with mastery of novel content, whereas foundational reading skills could be applied consistently to new reading content.

“Life events, such as HHM experiences, may disrupt math achievement more acutely by interfering with mastery of novel content, whereas foundational reading skills could be consistently applied to new reading content.”