The role of forest residues in the accounting for the global warming potential of bioenergy
Open accessAbstract
Bioenergy makes up a significant portion of the global primary energy pie, and its production from modernized technology is foreseen to substantially increase. The climate neutrality of biogenic CO2 emissions from bioenergy grown from sustainably managed biomass resource pools has recently been questioned. The temporary change caused in atmospheric CO2 concentration from biogenic carbon fluxes was found to be largely dependent on the length of biomass rotation period. In this work, we also show the importance of accounting for the unutilized biomass that is left to decompose in the resource pool and how the characterization factor for the climate impact of biogenic CO2 emissions changes whether residues are removed for bioenergy or not. With the case of Norwegian Spruce biomass grown in Norway, we found that significantly more biogenic CO2 emissions should be accounted towards contributing to global warming potential when residues are left in the forest. For a 100‐year time horizon, the global warming potential bio factors suggest that between 44 and 62% of carbon‐flux, neutral biogenic CO2 emissions at the energy conversion plant should be attributed to causing equivalent climate change potential as fossil‐based CO2 emissions. For a given forest residue extraction scenario, the same factor should be applied to the combustion of any combination of stem and forest residues. Life cycle analysis practitioners should take these impacts into account and similar region/species specific factors should be developed.
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- Findingown data
CO2 emissions from biomass inherent of the bioenergy system that is left to decompose within the biomass resource pool is an important emission source to consider.
“This work has shown that CO 2 emissions from biomass inherent of the bioenergy system that is left to decompose within the biomass resource pool is also an important emission source to consider.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The managed forest stand is even aged and extracted in a single clear-cut after a 100-year rotation period.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The same species is immediately regrown after harvest and an equivalent amount of carbon that was clear-cut is sequestered over the rotation period.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The normalized growth curve for Norwegian Spruce in all scenarios follows the Schnute function.
- The authors state this as an assumption: An equivalent amount of all CO2 emitted in the presented cases grows back sustainably, so no direct or indirect land-use change is accounted for.
- Findingown data
For a 20-year time horizon, most forest residue extraction scenarios lead to the unit biogenic CO2 pulse creating more GWP than a unit fossil CO2 pulse.
“For a TH of 20 years, results indicate that most FR extraction scenarios lead to the unit biogenic CO 2 pulse”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“creating more GWP than a unit CO 2 fossil pulse.This is for all cases where the GWP bio factor is larger than one.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The managed forest stand is even aged and extracted in a single clear-cut after a 100-year rotation period.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The same species is immediately regrown after harvest and an equivalent amount of carbon that was clear-cut is sequestered over the rotation period.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The normalized growth curve for Norwegian Spruce in all scenarios follows the Schnute function.
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
- Findingown data
As the time horizon increases, unit biogenic CO2 pulse scenarios become significantly better than the fossil CO2 pulse.
“As the TH increases, the unit biogenic CO 2 pulse scenarios become significantly better than the fossil CO 2 pulse.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The managed forest stand is even aged and extracted in a single clear-cut after a 100-year rotation period.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The same species is immediately regrown after harvest and an equivalent amount of carbon that was clear-cut is sequestered over the rotation period.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The normalized growth curve for Norwegian Spruce in all scenarios follows the Schnute function.
- Findingown data
Accounting for unutilized biomass left to decompose in the resource pool changes the characterization factor for the climate impact of biogenic CO2 emissions depending on whether residues are removed for bioenergy.
“In this work, we also show the importance of accounting for the unutilized biomass that is left to decompose in the resource pool and how the characterization factor for the climate impact of biogenic CO 2 emissions changes whether residues are removed for bioenergy or not.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
Depending on the fraction of available forest residues extracted, residual CO2 emissions in the forest can significantly increase the GWP bio factor that should be used for a given bioenergy system.
“Depending on the fraction of available FR that is extracted, these residual CO 2 emissions in the forest can significantly increase the GWP bio factor that should be used for a given bioenergy system.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The managed forest stand is even aged and extracted in a single clear-cut after a 100-year rotation period.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The same species is immediately regrown after harvest and an equivalent amount of carbon that was clear-cut is sequestered over the rotation period.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The normalized growth curve for Norwegian Spruce in all scenarios follows the Schnute function.
- The authors state this as an assumption: An equivalent amount of all CO2 emitted in the presented cases grows back sustainably, so no direct or indirect land-use change is accounted for.
- Findingown data
For a 100-year time horizon, between 44 and 62% of carbon-flux neutral biogenic CO2 emissions at the energy conversion plant should be attributed to causing equivalent climate change potential as fossil-based CO2 emissions.
“For a 100-year time horizon, the global warming potential bio factors suggest that between 44 and 62% of carbon-flux, neutral biogenic CO 2 emissions at the energy conversion plant should be attributed to causing equivalent climate change potential as fossil-based CO 2 emissions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The managed forest stand is even aged and extracted in a single clear-cut after a 100-year rotation period.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The same species is immediately regrown after harvest and an equivalent amount of carbon that was clear-cut is sequestered over the rotation period.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The normalized growth curve for Norwegian Spruce in all scenarios follows the Schnute function.
- The authors state this as an assumption: An equivalent amount of all CO2 emitted in the presented cases grows back sustainably, so no direct or indirect land-use change is accounted for.
- Findingown data
Several unit biogenic CO2 pulse scenarios create more cumulative radiative forcing than a unit fossil CO2 pulse in the short term.
“In fact, as seen in Fig. 2b, several of the unit biogenic CO 2 pulse scenarios create more CRF than the unit fossil CO 2 pulse in the short-term.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The managed forest stand is even aged and extracted in a single clear-cut after a 100-year rotation period.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The same species is immediately regrown after harvest and an equivalent amount of carbon that was clear-cut is sequestered over the rotation period.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The normalized growth curve for Norwegian Spruce in all scenarios follows the Schnute function.
- Findingown data
For Norwegian Spruce biomass grown in Norway, significantly more biogenic CO2 emissions should be accounted towards contributing to global warming potential when residues are left in the forest.
“With the case of Norwegian Spruce biomass grown in Norway, we found that significantly more biogenic CO 2 emissions should be accounted towards contributing to global warming potential when residues are left in the forest.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The managed forest stand is even aged and extracted in a single clear-cut after a 100-year rotation period.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The same species is immediately regrown after harvest and an equivalent amount of carbon that was clear-cut is sequestered over the rotation period.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The normalized growth curve for Norwegian Spruce in all scenarios follows the Schnute function.
- The authors state this as an assumption: An equivalent amount of all CO2 emitted in the presented cases grows back sustainably, so no direct or indirect land-use change is accounted for.
- Findingnone given
The initially high rate of forest residue decomposition leads to a more gradual decay of the normalized biogenic CO2 pulse from the atmosphere.
“The initially high rate of FR decomposition leads to a more gradual decay of the normalized biogenic CO 2 pulse from the atmo-sphere.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The managed forest stand is even aged and extracted in a single clear-cut after a 100-year rotation period.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The same species is immediately regrown after harvest and an equivalent amount of carbon that was clear-cut is sequestered over the rotation period.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The normalized growth curve for Norwegian Spruce in all scenarios follows the Schnute function.
- Findingreasoning
Because an equivalent amount of biogenic CO2 emitted is sequestered by sustainable re-growth, the cumulative radiative forcing of all unit biogenic CO2 pulse scenarios soon becomes less than that of a unit fossil CO2 pulse.
“However, since an equivalent amount of the biogenic CO 2 being emitted is sequestered by the sustainable re-growth of the biomass, the CRF of all unit biogenic CO 2 pulse scenarios soon becomes less than that of the unit fossil CO 2 pulse.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The managed forest stand is even aged and extracted in a single clear-cut after a 100-year rotation period.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The same species is immediately regrown after harvest and an equivalent amount of carbon that was clear-cut is sequestered over the rotation period.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The normalized growth curve for Norwegian Spruce in all scenarios follows the Schnute function.
- Findingown data
Removal of 75% above-ground residues and 0% below-ground residues would lead to 51% of the GWP created by an equivalent emission pulse of fossil CO2 when a 100-year time horizon is applied.
“For example, removal of 75% AGR and 0% of BGR would lead to 51% of the GWP created by an equivalent emission pulse of fossil CO 2 when a TH of 100 years is applied.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The managed forest stand is even aged and extracted in a single clear-cut after a 100-year rotation period.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The same species is immediately regrown after harvest and an equivalent amount of carbon that was clear-cut is sequestered over the rotation period.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The normalized growth curve for Norwegian Spruce in all scenarios follows the Schnute function.
- Findingown data
There is large variance between forest residue extraction scenarios in GWP bio factors.
“However, there is a large variance between the FR extraction scenarios.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The managed forest stand is even aged and extracted in a single clear-cut after a 100-year rotation period.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The same species is immediately regrown after harvest and an equivalent amount of carbon that was clear-cut is sequestered over the rotation period.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The normalized growth curve for Norwegian Spruce in all scenarios follows the Schnute function.
- Findingown data
The sensitivity analysis suggests that relatively small permanent soil carbon losses due to BGR extraction mean that maximizing FR extraction may not lead to the least radiative forcing FR extraction scenario.
“This sensitivity analysis suggests that relatively small permanent soil carbon losses due to BGR extraction means that maximizing FR extraction may not lead to the least radiative forcing FR extraction scenario.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
More radiative forcing accumulates when a higher fraction of forest residues is left upon the forest floor.
“As a consequence, more radiative forcing accumulates when a higher fraction of the FR is left upon the forest floor as can be seen in Fig. 2b.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The managed forest stand is even aged and extracted in a single clear-cut after a 100-year rotation period.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The same species is immediately regrown after harvest and an equivalent amount of carbon that was clear-cut is sequestered over the rotation period.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The normalized growth curve for Norwegian Spruce in all scenarios follows the Schnute function.
- Findingown data
Results from Table 3 indicate that the CO2 emitted from long rotation NS-based bioenergy creates a significant impact on the climate.
“Results from Table 3 indicate that the CO 2 being emitted from long rotation NS-based bioenergy creates a significant impact on the climate.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The 100-year time horizon has been most commonly applied in LCA studies.
- Rests on an assumption: The 100-year time horizon is the most suitable for making policy-related decisions.
- Findingown data
With a 100-year time horizon, the CRF is in the range of 44-62% relative to a fossil CO2 emission.
“With this TH of 100 years, the CRF is in the range of 44-62% relative to a fossil CO 2 emission.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The 100-year time horizon has been most commonly applied in LCA studies.
- Rests on an assumption: The 100-year time horizon is the most suitable for making policy-related decisions.
- Interpretationreasoning
A bioenergy system that extracts very little forest residue has higher climate impact potential per unit bioenergy than a system that extracts nearly all available forest residue.
“In this sense, a bioenergy system that manages FR with very little FR extraction will in turn have a higher climate impact potential on a unit bioenergy basis than a system that extracts nearly all of the FR that is available.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
As atmospheric CO2 concentration increases, changes in biomass growth rate, regional temperature and precipitation are likely to increase in the boreal region.
“As atmospheric CO 2 concentration increases, changes in biomass growth rate, regional temperature and precipitation are likely to increase in the boreal region (Kelloma ¨ki et al., 2008).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kelloma ¨ki et al., 2008
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
Regenerating forests after logging disturbance remain net sources of CO2 for at least one to two decades, largely due to heterotrophic decomposition of forest residues left on the forest floor.
“In fact, regenerating forests upon such a disturbance have been found to remain as net sources of CO 2 for at least one to two decades after logging and this is largely due to the heterotrophic decomposition of forest residues (FR) left upon the forest floor (Olsson et al., 1996;Yanai et al., 2003;Clark et al., 2004).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Interpretationreasoning
The climate impact due to the unit CO2 pulse emission for bioenergy directly refers to the biomass combusted and would be equally applied when either stems or forest residues are burnt.
“According to Eqn (2), the climate impact due to the unit CO 2 pulse emission for bioenergy directly refers to the biomass combusted, and would be equally applied when either stems or forest residues are burnt.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The managed forest stand is even aged and extracted in a single clear-cut after a 100-year rotation period.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The same species is immediately regrown after harvest and an equivalent amount of carbon that was clear-cut is sequestered over the rotation period.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The normalized growth curve for Norwegian Spruce in all scenarios follows the Schnute function.
- Study design and conductcitation
The characterization factors are simplistic in that they assume climate conditions similar to recent history simulated over a 500 year span and a constant background atmospheric CO2 concentration of 378 ppm.
“However, such characterization factors are simplistic in terms of assuming climate conditions similar to recent history simulated over a 500 year span along with a constant background atmospheric CO 2 concentration of 378 ppm (Forster et al., 2007).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Forster et al., 2007
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
The temporary change in atmospheric CO2 concentration from biogenic carbon fluxes is largely dependent on the length of the biomass rotation period.
“The temporary change caused in atmospheric CO 2 concentration from biogenic carbon fluxes was found to be largely dependent on the length of biomass rotation period.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Cherubini et al., 2011a
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
Bioenergy systems relying on biomass with long-rotational re-growth periods significantly impact the climate even when carbon-flux neutral biogenic-sourced CO2 emissions are assumed.
“Bioenergy systems that rely on biomass with long-rotational re-growth periods have been found to significantly impact the climate even when carbon-flux neutral biogenic-sourced CO 2 emissions are assumed (Cherubini et al., 2011a).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Cherubini et al., 2011a
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationnone given
If the rotation period and FR extraction efficiency is the same for the harvested stem and FR, then the given GWP bio factors will be equivalent regardless of whether the energy plant is combusting AGR, BGR, stem wood or in any combination thereof.
“If the rotation period and FR extraction efficiency is the same for the harvested stem and FR, then the given GWP bio factors will be equivalent regardless of whether the energy plant is combusting AGR, BGR, stem wood or in any combination thereof.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
The current literature only provides GWP bio results for the case where all available biomass is removed.
“Although the application of these GWP bio factors is quite straight forward, the current literature only provides results for the case where all available biomass is removed.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Cherubini et al., 2011a
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning
The climatic changes due to increasing atmospheric CO2 concentrations and other future climate perturbations are not accounted for in the characterization factors.
“Therefore, the climatic changes due to increasing atmospheric CO 2 concentrations and other climate perturbations in the atmosphere that may occur in the future are not accounted for.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Climate conditions similar to recent history simulated over a 500 year span and a constant background atmospheric CO2 concentration of 378 ppm.
- Interpretationreasoning
The GWP bio factors are not foreseen to change significantly in terms of changing IRF because both the numerator and denominator are a function of the same IRF.
“The GWP bio factors are not foreseen to change significantly in terms of changing IRF since both the numerator and denominator are a function of the same IRF.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationnone given
The GWP bio factors are fully consistent with the GWP factors as defined by the IPCC and commonly applied in LCA.
“They are fully consistent with the GWP factors as defined by the IPCC and that are commonly applied in LCA.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
All but one of 94 LCA studies reviewed did not consider climate impact associated with CO2 emissions derived from renewable biomass.
“a recent article (Cherubini & Strømman, 2011) found that all but one of the 94 studies that they reviewed did not consider climate impact associated to the CO 2 emissions derived from the renewable biomass.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Cherubini & Strømman, 2011
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationown data
A greater level of climate change mitigation can be achieved the more forest residue is extracted from the forest floor.
“In this sense, a greater level of climate change mitigation can be achieved the more FR is extracted from the forest floor.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The managed forest stand is even aged and extracted in a single clear-cut after a 100-year rotation period.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The same species is immediately regrown after harvest and an equivalent amount of carbon that was clear-cut is sequestered over the rotation period.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The normalized growth curve for Norwegian Spruce in all scenarios follows the Schnute function.
- Premisecitation
Empirical research on the magnitude of soil carbon emissions from forest soil disruption is few in number.
“Unfortunately, empirical research on the magnitude of these emissions is few in number (Jandl et al., 2007;Walmsley & Godbold, 2010).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Interpretationreasoning
The time for net carbon flux to become a net sink depends on the amount of forest residues extracted.
“The time it takes for this net carbon flux to become a net sink depends on the amount of FR extracted.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
For a given forest residue extraction scenario, the same GWP bio factor should be applied to the combustion of any combination of stem and forest residues.
“For a given forest residue extraction scenario, the same factor should be applied to the combustion of any combination of stem and forest residues.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“All combinations will result in the same GWP bio factors as long as the FR extraction efficiency is assumed to be the same.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The managed forest stand is even aged and extracted in a single clear-cut after a 100-year rotation period.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The same species is immediately regrown after harvest and an equivalent amount of carbon that was clear-cut is sequestered over the rotation period.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The normalized growth curve for Norwegian Spruce in all scenarios follows the Schnute function.
- The authors state this as an assumption: An equivalent amount of all CO2 emitted in the presented cases grows back sustainably, so no direct or indirect land-use change is accounted for.
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
- Premisecitation
When residues are left in the forest, significant levels of CO2 emissions occur from decomposition of residual biomass that remains in the harvesting pool and gradually oxidizes to the atmosphere.
“Clearly, when residues are left, there are also significant levels of emissions from the decomposition of residual biomass that remains in the harvesting pool that gradually oxidizes as CO 2 to the atmosphere.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Premisecitation
FR removal has been found to reduce subsequent forest growth.
“Although FR removal has been found to reduce subsequent forest growth (Zabowski et al., 1994;Helmisaari et al., 2011)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Premisecitation
The Yasso07 model has been shown to give unbiased estimates for the decomposition of woody and nonwoody litter.
“The Yasso07 model has been shown to give unbiased estimates for the decomposition of woody and nonwoody litter (Tuomi et al., 2009).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Tuomi et al., 2009 source
- Study design and conductcitation
The decomposition of FR in this study was found to fit well with past work that utilized the Yasso07 model.
“The decomposition of FR in this study was found to fit well with past work that utilized the Yasso07 model (see SI for illustrative comparison) (Repo et al., 2011(Repo et al., , 2012)).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Repo et al., 2011
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Repo et al., 2012 source
- May combine two claims. 7
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 8
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataWhen GWP bio factors are calculated at a 500-year time horizon, the variance between forest residue extraction scenarios significantly dampens and very little variance is found across scenarios.
“When the GWP bio factors are calculated at a TH of 500 years, the variance between the FR extraction scenarios significantly dampens and very little variance in the GWP bio factors is found across the FR extraction scenarios as can be seen in Table 3.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The managed forest stand is even aged and extracted in a single clear-cut after a 100-year rotation period.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The same species is immediately regrown after harvest and an equivalent amount of carbon that was clear-cut is sequestered over the rotation period.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The normalized growth curve for Norwegian Spruce in all scenarios follows the Schnute function.
May combine two claims.
FindingreasoningThe decomposition rate of the remaining forest residue composition is forest-residue-component specific, and aggregate decomposition of remaining FR components is sensitive to changing the FR extraction scenario.
“Therefore, the decomposition rate of the FR composition remaining upon the forest floor is FR component specific, and the aggregate decomposition of remaining FR components is sensitive to changing the FR extraction scenario.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The managed forest stand is even aged and extracted in a single clear-cut after a 100-year rotation period.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The same species is immediately regrown after harvest and an equivalent amount of carbon that was clear-cut is sequestered over the rotation period.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The normalized growth curve for Norwegian Spruce in all scenarios follows the Schnute function.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn the two extreme cases, 0% FR extracted gives GWP bio at 100 years of 0.62 and 100% FR extracted gives GWP bio at 100 years of 0.44, so around 18 more percentage points of CO2 emissions from the bioenergy conversion site should be accounted for contributing to climate change if a 100-year time horizon is considered.
“In the two extreme cases-0% FR extracted (GWP bio,TH=100 = 0.62) and 100% FR extracted (GWP bio,TH=100 = 0.44)-around 18 more percentage points of CO 2 emissions from the bioenergy conversion site should be accounted for contributing to climate change if a TH of 100 years is considered.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The managed forest stand is even aged and extracted in a single clear-cut after a 100-year rotation period.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The same species is immediately regrown after harvest and an equivalent amount of carbon that was clear-cut is sequestered over the rotation period.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The normalized growth curve for Norwegian Spruce in all scenarios follows the Schnute function.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductreasoningDue to the lack of empirical research on the tradeoffs, the same re-growth profile was maintained for all FR extraction scenarios.
“Due to the lack of empirical research on these tradeoffs, we maintained the same re-growth profile for all FR extraction scenarios.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The level of FR extraction may alter the forest regrowth profile.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationreasoningIf future climatic changes were taken into account, FR decomposition rates would likely increase slightly.
“If this were taken into account, then FR decomposition rates would likely increase slightly.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationreasoningFuture climatic changes may also change the resulting atmospheric decay curve or IRF of a fossil CO2 pulse.
“This may also change the resulting atmospheric decay curve or IRF of a fossil CO 2 pulse.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationFR removal can also assist with efficient planting of seedlings.
“FR removal can also assist with efficient planting of seedlings (Veli-Matti, 2006)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Veli-Matti, 2006
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationProcurement losses are significant in certain bioenergy systems.
“Procurement losses are also significant in certain bioenergy systems (Forsberg, 2000)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Forsberg, 2000 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Interpretationnone givenThe GWP bio factor can be used from either an attributional or a consequential perspective.
“The GWP bio factor can then be seen as a straight forward metric that can be used from either an attributional or a consequential perspective.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationFertilizer compensation has been found to have significant net climate cooling benefits.
“fertilizer compensation has been found to have significant net climate cooling benefits (Eriksson et al., 2007;Sathre et al., 2010).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe carbon neutral-equals-climate neutral simplification is sensible for biomass with quick rotation periods but does not hold for longer rotation periods, especially boreal forest biomass with rotation periods around 100 years.
“This was found to be a sensible assumption for biomass with quick rotation periods (like annual crops), but this simplification does not hold for longer rotation periods especially for boreal forest biomass which have rotation periods commonly hovering around 100 years (Cherubini et al., 2011a).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Cherubini et al., 2011a
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationIncreasing atmospheric CO2 concentration would likely increase the marginal atmospheric decay rate of CO2 and decrease the marginal radiative efficiency of CO2.
“This would also likely increase the marginal atmospheric decay rate of CO 2 and yet decrease the marginal radiative efficiency of CO 2 (Sathre & Gustavsson, 2011).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Sathre & Gustavsson, 2011 source
May combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenCO2 emissions due to biomass residual decomposition within the biomass resource pool are foreseen to be of particular importance in forest bioenergy systems and quite negligible for short rotation systems like annual energy crops.
“The CO 2 emissions due to biomass residual decomposition within the biomass resource pool are foreseen to be of particular importance in forest bioenergy systems and quite negligible for short rotation systems like annual energy crops.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
InterpretationreasoningRegional meteorological conditions play a key role in determining these GWP bio factors because local climate conditions will have a great influence on biomass rotation period and biomass residual decomposition rate.
“Regional meteorological conditions play a key role in determining these GWP bio factors because local climate conditions will have a great influence on biomass rotation period and biomass residual decomposition rate.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataDespite the uncertainties, the current estimates are assessed as reliable enough to demonstrate the magnitude of radiative forcing associated with producing bioenergy from harvested biomass in boreal coniferous forests and the notable differences between the extraction scenarios.
“Despite the uncertainties, it is our assessment that the current estimates are reliable enough to demonstrate the magnitude of radiative forcing associated with producing bioenergy from harvested biomass in boreal coniferous forests and the notable differences between the extraction scenarios.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
The authors state this as an assumption.
The managed forest stand is even aged and extracted in a single clear-cut after a 100-year rotation period.
“The managed forest stand is assumed to be even aged and extracted in a single clear-cut after a 100-year rotation period.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The same species is immediately regrown after harvest and an equivalent amount of carbon that was clear-cut is sequestered over the rotation period.
“The same species is assumed to be immediately regrown after harvest and an equivalent amount of carbon that was clear-cut (left in forest and extracted) is assumed to be sequestered over the rotation period.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The normalized growth curve for Norwegian Spruce in all scenarios follows the Schnute function.
“The normalized growth curve for NS in all scenarios was assumed to follow the Schnute function (Schnute, 1981) as was applied in Cherubini et al., 2011b.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
An equivalent amount of all CO2 emitted in the presented cases grows back sustainably, so no direct or indirect land-use change is accounted for.
“An equivalent amount of all CO 2 being emitted in the presented cases was assumed to grow back sustainably and therefore no direct (Fargione et al., 2008) or indirect (Searchinger, 2010) land-use change was accounted for”
The authors state this as an assumption.
FR is a forest co-product.
“this work takes on the viewpoint that FR is a forest co-product (McKechnie et al., 2010;Whittaker et al., 2011).”
The paper relies on this without support.
The level of FR extraction may alter the forest regrowth profile.
“The level of FR extraction may alter the forest regrowth profile.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The 100-year time horizon has been most commonly applied in LCA studies.
“The 100-year time horizon has been most commonly applied in LCA studies”
The paper relies on this without support.
The 100-year time horizon is the most suitable for making policy-related decisions.
“is thought to be the most suitable TH for making policy-related decisions.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Climate conditions similar to recent history simulated over a 500 year span and a constant background atmospheric CO2 concentration of 378 ppm.
“assuming climate conditions similar to recent history simulated over a 500 year span along with a constant background atmospheric CO 2 concentration of 378 ppm (Forster et al., 2007).”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Scenario 8's total residue extraction conflicts with its component totals
MinorThe 100% above-ground, 0% below-ground scenario establishes that above-ground residues make up about 61% of all forest residues. Using that share, scenario 8's 63% above-ground and 75% below-ground extraction gives about 68% total extraction, not the reported 65%.
“| 8. 75% AGR * | 75% BGR | 75% | 75% | 75% | 25% | 75% | 75% | 38% | 0% | 63% | 75% | 65% | |”
“| 6. 100% AGR/ | 0% BGR | 100% | 100% | 100% | 100% | 0% | 0% | 0% | 0% | 100% | 0% | 61% | |”
GWP bio is described as a double integral despite its stated formula
MinorEquation (4) defines GWP bio using integrals of the atmospheric decay profiles, which give cumulative radiative forcing at the selected time horizon. Taking the area under cumulative-radiative-forcing curves, as the results text says, would integrate those quantities a second time.
“The GWP bio is the ratio of the area under the CRF curve of the given FR extraction scenario divided by the area under the CRF curve due to a unit pulse of CO 2 from a fossil source at a given point in time”
“GWP bio ¼ AGWP bioCO2 AGWP CO2 ¼ C 0 R TH 0 a CO2 fðtÞdt C 0 R TH 0 a CO2 yðtÞdtð4Þ”
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Cited by
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Tisserant, A., & Cherubini, F. (2019) · Land · doi:10.3390/land8120179 · Cited by 195 · see citing works
Self-citationLevasseur, A., Cavalett, O., Fuglestvedt, J. S., Gasser, T., Johansson, D. J. A., Jørgensen, S. V., Raugei, M., Reisinger, A. R., Schivley, G. A., Strømman, A. H., et al. (2016) · Ecological Indicators · doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2016.06.049 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
Self-citationLamers, P., & Junginger, M. (2013) · Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining · doi:10.1002/bbb.1407 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
Norwegian Waste-to-Energy: Climate change, circular economy and carbon capture and storage
Lausselet, C., Cherubini, F., Oreggioni, G. D., Serrano, G. D. A., Becidan, M., Hu, X., Rørstad, P. K., & Strømman, A. H. (2017) · Resources Conservation and Recycling · doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2017.07.025 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
“In opposition to long rotation woody biomass (Cherubini et al. 2012, Guest et al. 2013a, Guest et al. 2013b), waste can be considered a carbon neutral fuel, and carbon biogenic is thus set to 0 in this study.”
Self-citationWithey, P., Johnston, C. M. T., & Guo, J. (2019) · Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.rser.2019.109408 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Analysis of the Global Warming Potential of Biogenic CO2 Emission in Life Cycle Assessments
Liu, W., Zhang, Z., Xie, X., Yu, Z., von Gadow, K., Xu, J., Zhao, S., & Yang, Y. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep39857 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
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Climate, economic, and environmental impacts of producing wood for bioenergy
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“…that depending on feedstock, changes in the forest supplying the feedstock can have significant impacts on the overall net emissions of GHGs and therefore need to be considered as a significant part of the complete carbon footprint (Agostini et al 2013, Giuntoli et al 2016, Guest et al 2013).”
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Koytsoumpa, E. I., Magiri-Skouloudi, D., Karellas, S., & Kakaras, E. C. (2021) · Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.rser.2021.111641 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
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Self-citationContribution of jet fuel from forest residues to multiple Sustainable Development Goals
Cavalett, O., & Cherubini, F. (2018) · Nature Sustainability · doi:10.1038/s41893-018-0181-2 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Self-citationQuantifying the climate effects of bioenergy – Choice of reference system
Koponen, K., Soimakallio, S., Kline, K. L., Cowie, A., & Brandão, M. (2017) · Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.292 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Global climate impacts of forest bioenergy: what, when and how to measure?
Cherubini, F., Bright, R. M., & Strømman, A. H. (2013) · Environmental Research Letters · doi:10.1088/1748-9326/8/1/014049 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Self-citationOreggioni, G. D., Singh, B., Cherubini, F., Guest, G., Lausselet, C., Luberti, M., Ahn, H., & Strømman, A. H. (2017) · International journal of greenhouse gas control · doi:10.1016/j.ijggc.2016.11.025 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Self-citationHow methodological choices affect LCA climate impact results: the case of structural timber
Rosa, M. D., Pizzol, M., & Schmidt, J. H. (2017) · The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment · doi:10.1007/s11367-017-1312-0 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Quantifying the global warming potential of <scp> CO <sub>2</sub> </scp> emissions from wood fuels
Holtsmark, B. (2015) · GCB Bioenergy · doi:10.1111/gcbb.12110 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“A number of sensitivity analyses then follow, and a set of model simulations are presented in a subsection to show the effects of the different methodological simplifications made in the studies by Cherubini et al. (2011b), Guest et al. (2012), and Pingoud et al. (2011).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialCan we produce carbon and climate neutral forest bioenergy?
Repo, A., Tuovinen, J., & Liski, J. (2014) · GCB Bioenergy · doi:10.1111/gcbb.12134 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“, 2010), or the RF resulting from timing of the emissions (Zetterberg et al., 2004; Cherubini et al., 2011a; Guest et al., 2012).”
BackgroundLiu, W., Yu, Z., Xie, X., von Gadow, K., & Peng, C. H. (2017) · Environmental Reviews · doi:10.1139/er-2017-0060 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“…researchers became aware that the biogenic CO2, especially from forest 165 biomass, may have positive GWP because it is emitted by a one-time combustion and requires 166 years to be compensated by regrowth (Cherubini et al. 2011; Pingoud et al. 2012; Bright et al. 167 2012; Guest et al. 2013).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialGlobal spatially explicit CO2 emission metrics for forest bioenergy
Cherubini, F., Huijbregts, M. A. J., Kindermann, G., Rosalie Van Zelm, F., van der Velde, M., Stadler, K., & Strømman, A. H. (2016) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep20186 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Self-citationIntegrate carbon dynamic models in analyzing carbon sequestration impact of forest biomass harvest
Yan, Y. (2017) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.09.326 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Cherubini, F., Guest, G., & Strømman, A. H. (2013) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2013.07.021 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Self-citationA comparison of the global warming effects of wood fuels and fossil fuels taking albedo into account
Holtsmark, B. J. (2014) · GCB Bioenergy · doi:10.1111/gcbb.12200 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“Later, Cherubini et al. (2011b, 2012), Bright et al. (2012), Guest et al. (2012), and Pingoud et al. (2011) presented estimates of GWPbio in the interval 0.34–0.62 when slow-growing forest stands were considered.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialData Analytics for Enhancement of Forest and Biomass Supply Chain Management
Zhang, X., Wang, J., Vance, J., Wang, Y., Wu, J., & Hartley, D. S. (2020) · Current Forestry Reports · doi:10.1007/s40725-020-00111-w · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Climate change mitigation in Canada’s forest sector: a spatially explicit case study for two regions
Smyth, C. E., Smiley, B. P., MAGNAN, M. L., Birdsey, R. A., Dugan, A. J., Olguín, M., Mascorro, V. S., & Kurz, W. A. (2018) · Carbon Balance and Management · doi:10.1186/s13021-018-0099-z · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Albers, A., Avadí, Á., Benoist, A., Collet, P., & Hélias, A. (2019) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135278 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Helin, T., Salminen, H., Hynynen, J., Soimakallio, S., Huuskonen, S., & Pingoud, K. (2015) · GCB Bioenergy · doi:10.1111/gcbb.12244 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“The reasons for higher GWPbio results in this study than in Cherubini et al. (2011), Pingoud et al. (2012), Guest et al. (2013) and Soimakallio (2014) very probably stem from differences in modelling system boundaries.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialComparative analyses of different biogenic CO2 emission accounting systems in life cycle assessment
Liu, W., Zhu, Q., Zhou, X., et al. (2018) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.11.039 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Greenhouse gas emissions from forestry in East Norway
Timmermann, V., & Dibdiaková, J. (2014) · The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment · doi:10.1007/s11367-014-0773-7 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Life Cycle Assessment of District Heating Systems in Europe: Case Study and Recommendations
Jeandaux, C., Videau, J.-B., & Prieur‐Vernat, A. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su132011256 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Balancing the green carbon cycle — Biogenic carbon within life cycle assessment
Füchsl, S., Huber, J., Fröhling, M., & Röder, H. (2025) · The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment · doi:10.1007/s11367-025-02469-0 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“Guest et al. (2013a) expanded the GWP bio to include the effect of delayed emissions and storage, resulting in GWP bio factors specific to the rotation period and storage duration.”
InfluentialCircular economy for the building industry: Life cycle assessment of biochar-enhanced concrete
Ee, A. W. L., Chew, S. J., Hsien Hui, K. H. O. O., Ng, T. S., & Kua, H. W. (2025) · Resources Conservation and Recycling · doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2025.108537 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Arvesen, A., Cherubini, F., Serrano, G. D. A., Astrup, R., Becidan, M., Belbo, H., Goile, F., Grytli, T., Guest, G., Lausselet, C., et al. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-21559-8 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Self-citationConclusions and caveats from studies of managed forest carbon budgets
Vance, E. D. (2018) · Forest Ecology and Management · doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2018.06.021 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
She, J., Chung, W., & Han, H. S. (2019) · Forests · doi:10.3390/f10080689 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
A Parametric Integrated Design Approach for Life Cycle Zero-Carbon Buildings
Kamel, E., Pittau, F., Verme, L. M. D., Scatigna, P., & Iannaccone, G. (2024) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su16052001 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Guest, G., & Strømman, A. H. (2014) · Journal of Sustainable Forestry · doi:10.1080/10549811.2013.872997 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“Here we assume that the glulam beam is sourced from Norway Spruce forest with a rotation period of 100 yr following a NEP profile from Guest, Cherubini, and Strømman (2012a, 2012b), where no forest residues are assumed to be removed from the forest.”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationAdetona, A. B., & Layzell, D. B. (2023) · GCB Bioenergy · doi:10.1111/gcbb.13048 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Integrating impacts on climate change and biodiversity from forest harvest in Norway
Iordan, C.-M., Verones, F., & Cherubini, F. (2018) · Ecological Indicators · doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2018.02.034 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Self-citationGlobal estimation of the climate change impact of logging residue utilization for biofuels
Liu, W., Hou, Y., Liu, W., et al. (2020) · Forest Ecology and Management · doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2020.118000 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Nordborg, M., Sasu-Boakye, Y., Cederberg, C., & Berndes, G. (2016) · The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment · doi:10.1007/s11367-016-1158-x · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“In some instances, it may be useful to abandon the reference situation altogether and directly attribute absolute impacts to the assessed land use situation (see, e.g., Cherubini et al. 2011; Bright et al. 2012; Guest et al. 2013).”
BackgroundWiloso, E. I., Heijungs, R., & Huppes, G. (2014) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.06.044 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Hu, X., Iordan, C.-M., & Cherubini, F. (2018) · Global Environmental Change · doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2018.03.004 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
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Hao, H., Dai, L., Wang, K., Xu, J., & Liu, W. (2021) · Applied Energy · doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2021.117323 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
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Life-Cycle Carbon from Waste Wood Used in District Heating and Other Alternatives
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Forest residues contribute significantly to climate change in China
Tian, J., Yu, F., Guo, Z., Yan, Y., Xie, Y., Ma, Z., Li, Q., Folega, F., & Liu, W. (2023) · Resources Conservation and Recycling · doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2023.107157 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
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Methodological accounting tool for Climate and Energy Planning in a Norwegian municipality
Valente, C., Soldal, E., Johnsen, F. M., et al. (2018) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.02.203 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“Furthermore, although bioenergy has been named as one of the solutions for less climate-intensive energy systems, the climate neutral assumption of bioenergy has been questioned lately (Bowyer et al., 2012; Cherubini et al., 2012; Guest et al., 2013).”
BackgroundOlofsson, J. (2021) · Energies · doi:10.3390/en14144219 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Further elaborated GWPbio factors for forest biomass which take into account the decay of unharvested residues at the forest site are available [65].”
BackgroundInfluentialDynamic biogenic carbon accounting and functional properties of wood biochar from five species
Baniasadi, H., Abidnejad, R., Fathi, Z., Meinander, K., Koistinen, A. E., Kontturi, E., & Lizundia, E. (2026) · Chemical Engineering Journal · doi:10.1016/j.cej.2026.174573 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Bioenergy vs. Natural Gas for Production of District Heat in Norway: Climate Implications
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“The situation changes when climate forcing agents other than GHGs are considered in end points like effective forcing and global surface temperature change.”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationThe Effect of Forest Growth Rate on Climate Change Impacts of Logging Residue Utilization
Gan, X., Guo, B., Ma, Z., Fang, M., Yan, Y., & Liu, W. (2023) · Atmosphere · doi:10.3390/atmos14081270 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
A review on lignocellulosic fillers for sustainable thermoplastics
Baniasadi, H., Fazeli, M., Abidnejad, R., & Lizundia, E. (2026) · Chemical Engineering Journal · doi:10.1016/j.cej.2026.180043 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
System analysis and life cycle assessment of forest supply chains with integrated biomass production
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Energy Sources Used in Food Preparation and Impacts on Climate Change
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Exploring the Impact of Span Length on Environmental Performance: A Comparative Study
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“…the way for this understanding, but have mainly focused either on forest carbon balances (Schlamadinger et al. 1995; Palosuo et al. 2001; Melin et al. 2010), or the radiative forcing resulting from the timing of the emissions (Zetterberg et al. 2004; Cherubini et al. 2011a; Guest et al. 2012).”
BackgroundSeven essays on policies and international cooperation to abate emissions of greenhouse gases
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A Parametric Integrated Design Approach for Life Cycle Zero-Carbon BuildingPreprint
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Climate impact of delayed carbon dioxide removal to compensate for legacy emissionsPreprint
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Industrial Symbiotic Relationships at Thermoelectric Power Plants Fueled by Forest Biomass in Brazil
Sell, L. G., Simioni, F. J., Soares, J. F., Bertol, E., & Coelho, L. M. (2026) · Circular Economy and Sustainability · doi:10.1007/s43615-026-01099-4
“…model enables avoiding improper disposal of forest biomass, such as open-air burning, which releases pollutant particles into the atmosphere (Deboni et al. 2019 ) and contributes to global warming (Guest et al. 2013 ), while also reducing the dependence on virgin raw materials (Silva et al. 2020 ).”
Füchsl, S., & Röder, H. (2026) · GCB Bioenergy · doi:10.1111/gcbb.70169
Kumar, B., & Cabezas, H. (2026) · Energies · doi:10.3390/en19173950
- Authors
- Guest, G., Cherubini, F., & Strømman, A. H.
- Affiliations
- Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NO)
- Corresponding author
- Guest, Geoffrey
- Venue
- GCB Bioenergy
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2012-10-16
- Volume
- 5
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 459-466
- ISSN
- 1757-1693 (ISSN-L)
- 1757-1707
- OpenAlex
- W2149042588
- Cited by
- 70
- References
- 46
- Citations by year
- 2026: 11 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 5 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 2 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 2 · 2014: 5 · 2013: 6
- FWCI
- 3.44
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- GCB Bioenergy (publishedVersion)
- NORA - Norwegian Open Research Archives (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Norges Forskningsråd
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Environmental Impact and Sustainability
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Mechanics of Materials › Forest Biomass Utilization and Management
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Forestry › Agricultural and Food Sciences
- Keywords
- forest residues, global warming potential, bioenergy, biogenic CO2 emissions, Norway spruce, carbon flux, life cycle assessment, climate neutrality
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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