Who likes it hot? A global analysis of the climatic, ecological, and evolutionary determinants of warming tolerance in ants
Abstract
Effects of climate warming on wild populations of organisms are expected to be greatest at higher latitudes, paralleling greater anticipated increases in temperature in these regions. Yet, these expectations assume that populations in different regions are equally susceptible to the effects of warming. This is unlikely to be the case. Here, we develop a series of predictive models for physiological thermal tolerances in ants based on current and future climates. We found that tropical ants have lower warming tolerances, a metric of susceptibility to climate warming, than temperate ants despite greater increases in temperature at higher latitudes. Using climatic, ecological and phylogenetic data, we refine our predictions of which ants (across all regions) were most susceptible to climate warming. We found that ants occupying warmer and more mesic forested habitats at lower elevations are the most physiologically susceptible to deleterious effects of climate warming. Phylogenetic history was also a strong indicator of physiological susceptibility. In short, we find that ants that live in the canopies of hot, tropical forest are the most at risk, globally, from climate warming. Unfortunately this is where many, perhaps most, ant and other species on Earth live.
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The analyses are in keeping with predictions of Deutsch et al. that tropical insects should be especially vulnerable to climate warming.
“Fourth, our analyses are in keeping with predictions of Deutsch et al. (5) that tropical insects should be especially vulnerable to climate warming, adding to field and laboratory studies over the past several years that have consistently supported the predicted sensitivity (8, 48–53).”
From Climate-driven declines in arthropod abundance restructure a rainforest food web (2018) · cites this paper as [52]
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“This is in contrast to Diamond et al. (2012), who found small, but significant, phylogenetic signal in CTmax for ants in their global dataset.”
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“In assigning taxa to biomes, we used current biome as an approximation of the physiological tolerance of lineages [25].”
MethodSelf-citationSchou, M. F., Mouridsen, M. B., Sørensen, J. G., & Loeschcke, V. (2016) · Functional Ecology · doi:10.1111/1365-2435.12782 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Kellermann, V., van Heerwaarden, B., & Sgrò, C. M. (2017) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2017.0447 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
“Studies that seek to characterize thermal limits and thermal plasticity on non-model organisms predominately use estimates of thermal limits (generally measured as CTmax) from field individuals [2,5,7,28,43,44], even though thermal tolerances are highly plastic [11].”
BackgroundBasal resistance enhances warming tolerance of alien over indigenous species across latitude
Janion‐Scheepers, C., Phillips, L., Sgrò, C. M., Duffy, G. A., Hallas, R., & Chown, S. L. (2017) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1715598115 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
“In the springtail species investigated here, warming tolerance—a widely used measure of thermal safety margins—or capability to cope with elevated temperatures (17, 18, 35, 36), and calculated as the difference between maximum microhabitat temperature and CTmax, shows just such variation.”
BackgroundThe Vulnerability of Tropical Ectotherms to Warming Is Modulated by the Microclimatic Heterogeneity
Pincebourde, S., & Suppo, C. (2016) · Integrative and Comparative Biology · doi:10.1093/icb/icw014 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Extreme Insolation: Climatic Variation Shapes the Evolution of Thermal Tolerance at Multiple Scales
Baudier, K. M., D’Amelio, C. L., Malhotra, R., O’Connor, M. P., & O’Donnell, S. (2018) · The American Naturalist · doi:10.1086/698656 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
“In our analyses we accounted for two potentially important covariates of thermal tolerance: ant worker body size (Ribeiro et al. 2012) and phylogeny (Felsenstein 1985; Diamond et al. 2012b).”
BackgroundMethodInfluence of adaptive capacity on the outcome of climate change vulnerability assessment
Ofori, B. Y., Stow, A., Baumgartner, J. B., & Beaumont, L. J. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-017-13245-y · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Nutrition modifies critical thermal maximum of a dominant canopy ant
Bujan, J., & Kaspari, M. E. (2017) · Journal of Insect Physiology · doi:10.1016/j.jinsphys.2017.08.007 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Urban heat islands advance the timing of reproduction in a social insect
Chick, L. D., Strickler, S. A., Perez, A., Martin, R. A., & Diamond, S. E. (2019) · Journal of Thermal Biology · doi:10.1016/j.jtherbio.2019.01.004 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Self-citationPollock, H. S., Brawn, J. D., & Cheviron, Z. A. (2020) · Functional Ecology · doi:10.1111/1365-2435.13693 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
“…and have narrower thermal safety margins (i.e. are more likely to experience air temperatures that are closer to the limits of their heat tolerances) than their temperate counterparts (Deutsch et al., 2008; Diamond et al., 2012; Duarte et al., 2012; Huey et al., 2009, 2012; Vinagre et al., 2016).”
Andersen, A. N., Toro, I. D., & Parr, C. L. (2015) · Journal of Biogeography · doi:10.1111/jbi.12599 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“Temperature is a key factor controlling ant distributions (Andersen, 1995; Kaspari et al., 2004; Chaladze, 2012; Diamond et al., 2012; Bishop et al., 2014), and ant diversity declines with increasing latitude (Dunn et al., 2009).”
BackgroundSelf-citationAllen, J. L., Chown, S. L., Janion‐Scheepers, C., & Clusella‐Trullas, S. (2016) · Conservation Physiology · doi:10.1093/conphys/cow053 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“, 2008) as a proxy for species vulnerability to climate change; and (ii) indications that tropical and sub-tropical species may be substantially more at risk from rising temperatures than their temperate counterparts, although with some complexity about this pattern and the assumptions made to derive it (Deutsch et al…”
BackgroundCurtis, E. M., Gollan, J. R., Murray, B. R., & Leigh, A. (2016) · Journal of Biogeography · doi:10.1111/jbi.12713 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“1) (Deutsch et al., 2008; Huey et al., 2009; Diamond et al., 2012; Hoffmann et al., 2013).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialBujan, J., Roeder, K. A., de Beurs, K. M., Weiser, M. D., & Kaspari, M. E. (2020) · Global Ecology and Biogeography · doi:10.1111/geb.13121 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“We used an established protocol for measuring ant CT max (Diamond et al., 2012; Kaspari, Clay, Lucas, Yanoviak, & Kay, 2015) in which the workers are inspected every 10 min for movement, and the temperature is raised 2°C, starting at 36°C.”
MethodDiamond, S. E. (2016) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.13223 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Self-citationShah, A. A., Woods, H. A., Havird, J. C., Encalada, A. C., Flecker, A. S., Funk, W. C., Guayasamin, J. M., Kondratieff, B. C., Poff, N. L., Thomas, S. A., et al. (2020) · Global Change Biology · doi:10.1111/gcb.15400 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Thermal constraints on foraging of tropical canopy ants
Spicer, M. E., Stark, A. Y., Adams, B. J., Kneale, R. C., Kaspari, M. E., & Yanoviak, S. P. (2017) · Oecologia · doi:10.1007/s00442-017-3825-4 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Johansson, F., Orizaola, G., & Nilsson‐Örtman, V. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-65608-7 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Critical thermal limits in ants and their implications under climate change
Nascimento, G., Câmara, T., & Arnán, X. (2022) · Biological reviews/Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society · doi:10.1111/brv.12843 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Esperk, T., Kjærsgaard, A., Walters, R. J., Berger, D., & Blanckenhorn, W. U. (2016) · Journal of Evolutionary Biology · doi:10.1111/jeb.12832 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“…margins (the difference between mean ambient temperature and optimal temperature for a given species), tropical species are more vulnerable to current climate change than species living at higher latitudes (Deutsch et al., 2008; Huey et al., 2009, 2012; Sunday et al., 2011; Diamond et al., 2012).”
BackgroundNowrouzi, S., Andersen, A. N., Macfadyen, S., Staunton, K. M., VanDerWal, J. J., & Robson, S. K. A. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0153420 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“Compared with temperate regions, tropical species often have narrower elevational ranges because of greater climatic change with elevation and narrower thermal tolerances [12, 13].”
BackgroundVariation in thermal tolerance of North American ants
Verble-Pearson, R., Gifford, M. E., & Yanoviak, S. P. (2014) · Journal of Thermal Biology · doi:10.1016/j.jtherbio.2014.12.006 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
“Climate change is altering the thermal profiles of habitats currently occupied by many plant and animal species (Sinervo et al., 2010; Diamond et al., 2012).”
InfluentialSchou, M. F., Kristensen, T. N., Pedersen, A., Karlsson, G., Loeschcke, V., & Malmendal, A. (2016) · American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpregu.00268.2016 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“THE THERMAL ENVIRONMENT is central for the abundance and distribution of ectotherms and much attention has been directed toward the potential of ectotherms to adapt to current and future thermal conditions (2, 15, 16, 20, 22, 42).”
Rate dynamics of ectotherm responses to thermal stress
Kovacevic, A., Latombe, G., & Chown, S. L. (2019) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2019.0174 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
How does climate change affect social insects?
Menzel, F., & Feldmeyer, B. (2021) · Current Opinion in Insect Science · doi:10.1016/j.cois.2021.01.005 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Asymmetry of thermal sensitivity and the thermal risk of climate change
Buckley, L. B., Huey, R. B., & Kingsolver, J. G. (2022) · Global Ecology and Biogeography · doi:10.1111/geb.13570 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Diamond, S. E., & Chick, L. D. (2017) · Current Zoology · doi:10.1093/cz/zox072 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“…species, lower thermal tolerances appear to track latitudinal variation in climate more strongly than upper thermal tolerances (Sunday et al. 2011), and upper tolerances are frequently characterized by high levels of phylogenetic conservatism (Diamond et al. 2012; Kellermann et al. 2012).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationThermal adaptation and phosphorus shape thermal performance in an assemblage of rainforest ants
Kaspari, M. E., Clay, N. A., Lucas, J. M., Revzen, S., Kay, A. D., & Yanoviak, S. P. (2015) · Ecology · doi:10.1890/15-1225.1 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Strong Costs and Benefits of Winter Acclimatization in Drosophila melanogaster
Schou, M. F., Loeschcke, V., & Kristensen, T. N. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0130307 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Chen, Y.-H., & Robinson, E. J. H. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0116113 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“For ants, some species-level studies have asserted the negative impacts on physiology or behaviours from climate change [40–42]; others have revealed its promotive role on the expansion of species distribution, especially for invasive species [43–48].”
BackgroundHigh Heat Tolerance Is Negatively Correlated with Heat Tolerance Plasticity in Nudibranch Mollusks
Armstrong, E. J., Tanner, R. L., & Stillman, J. H. (2019) · Physiological and Biochemical Zoology · doi:10.1086/704519 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Klinges, D. H., & Scheffers, B. R. (2020) · The American Naturalist · doi:10.1086/711873 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“…2000; Parmesan and Yohe 2003; Evans et al. 2005), fewer attempts have been made to integrate knowledge of such vertically stratified microclimates into biogeographical theory pertinent to landscape and global scales (but see Diamond et al. 2012; Scheffers et al. 2017b; Oliveira and Scheffers 2018).”
BackgroundClimate sensitivity across latitude: scaling physiology to communities
Louthan, A. M., DeMarche, M. L., & Shoemaker, L. G. (2021) · Trends in Ecology & Evolution · doi:10.1016/j.tree.2021.05.008 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Nguyen, A., DeNovellis, K., Resendez, S. D., Pustilnik, J. D., Gotelli, N. J., Parker, J. D., & Cahan, S. H. (2017) · Journal of Comparative Physiology B · doi:10.1007/s00360-017-1101-x · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Thermal acclimation and adaptation across populations in a broadly distributed soil arthropod
Jensen, A., Alemu, T., Alemneh, T., Pertoldi, C., & Bahrndorff, S. (2019) · Functional Ecology · doi:10.1111/1365-2435.13291 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Activity niches outperform thermal physiological limits in predicting global ant distributions
Guo, F., Guénard, B., Economo, E. P., Deutsch, C. A., & Bonebrake, T. C. (2020) · Journal of Biogeography · doi:10.1111/jbi.13799 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Geographical bias in physiological data limits predictions of global change impacts
White, C. R., Marshall, D. J., Chown, S. L., Clusella‐Trullas, S., Portugal, S. J., Franklin, C. E., & Seebacher, F. (2021) · Functional Ecology · doi:10.1111/1365-2435.13807 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Ant-mediated seed dispersal in a warmed world
Stuble, K. L., Patterson, C. M., Rodríguez‐Cabal, M. A., Ribbons, R. R., Dunn, R. R., & Sanders, N. J. (2014) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.286 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Self-citationCoulin, C., de la Vega, G., Chifflet, L., Calcaterra, L. A., & Schilman, P. E. (2019) · Biological Invasions · doi:10.1007/s10530-019-02063-0 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Using Physiology to Predict the Responses of Ants to Climatic Warming
Diamond, S. E., Penick, C. A., Pelini, S. L., Ellison, A. M., Gotelli, N. J., Sanders, N. J., & Dunn, R. R. (2013) · Integrative and Comparative Biology · doi:10.1093/icb/ict085 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“Ants and several other ectothermic taxa are likely to be more vulnerable to climatic change in the tropics compared with more temperate regions (Deutsch et al. 2008; Huey et al. 2009; Diamond et al. 2012a; but see Walters et al. 2012).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSelf-citationAgosta, S. J., Joshi, K. A., & Kester, K. M. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0198803 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Leong, C., Tsang, T. P. N., & Guénard, B. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0265361 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“There has been an increasing interest the forecasting of species’ tolerances to warming environments based on their CTmax [19, 45].”
BackgroundRoeder, K. A., Bujan, J., de Beurs, K. M., Weiser, M. D., & Kaspari, M. E. (2021) · Ecosphere · doi:10.1002/ecs2.3645 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“We posit the lack of signal is partially due to reduced sample size — 28 genera compared to 40 genera in Bujan et al. (2020 a ) and 156 species in Diamond et al. (2012) — which parallels a similar result observed in communities of montane ants in southern Africa (Bishop et al. 2017).”
BackgroundAnt nest architecture is shaped by local adaptation and plastic response to temperature
Sankovitz, M., & Purcell, J. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-02491-w · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Arnán, X., & Blüthgen, N. (2015) · Global Ecology and Biogeography · doi:10.1111/geb.12363 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
da Costa, F. V., Blüthgen, N., Junior, A. B. V., Guerra, T. J., Braga, L. D. S., & Neves, F. S. (2018) · Ecological Indicators · doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2018.05.001 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Diamond, S. E., & Chick, L. D. (2017) · Ecography · doi:10.1111/ecog.03264 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Self-citationThermal tolerance regulates foraging behaviour of ants
Roeder, D. V., Paraskevopoulos, A. W., & Roeder, K. A. (2022) · Ecological Entomology · doi:10.1111/een.13118 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“(USA Scientific) prewarmed to 36 C and checked ants every 10 min to see if they had reached their critical thermal limit by rotating the vials and looking for a righting response (Diamond et al., 2012; Kaspari et al., 2015).”
Leal, I. R., Ribeiro‐Neto, J. D., Arnán, X., Oliveira, F. M. P., Arcoverde, G. B., Feitosa, R. M., & Andersen, A. N. (2017) · Caatinga · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-68339-3_3 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Thermal limits in the face of infectious disease: How important are pathogens?
Hector, T. E., Sgrò, C. M., & Hall, M. D. (2021) · Global Change Biology · doi:10.1111/gcb.15761 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“…insight from studies exploring thermal safety margins, especially interspecific analyses of upper thermal limits across large geographic ranges, is that some populations and species have far narrower thermal safety margins than others (Diamond et al., 2011; Hoffmann, 2010; Kingsolver et al., 2013).”
BackgroundProjected changes in climatic suitability for Kinosternon turtles by 2050 and 2070
Butler, C. J., Stanila, B. D., Iverson, J. B., Stone, P. A., & Bryson, M. (2016) · Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1002/ece3.2492 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“Turtles, and other ectotherms, are thought to be particularly sensitive to climate changes (Barrows, 2011; Diamond et al., 2012; Duarte et al., 2012; Gibbons et al., 2000; McCoy et al., 2011; Rödder et al., F IGURE 11 A map showing the output from the model runs for Kinosternon subrubrum.”
MethodBlatrix, R., Colin, T., Wegnez, P., Galkowski, C., & Géniez, P. (2018) · Annales de la Société entomologique de France (N S ) · doi:10.1080/00379271.2018.1490927 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“Tropical ants have narrower temperature ranges than ants from temperate climates (Diamond et al. 2012), which limits the invasiveness of these species in France and Belgium.”
BackgroundCahan, S. H., Nguyen, A., Stanton‐Geddes, J., Penick, C. A., Hernáiz-Hernández, Y., Demarco, B., & Gotelli, N. J. (2016) · Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A Molecular & Integrative Physiology · doi:10.1016/j.cbpa.2016.11.017 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Pelini, S. L., Diamond, S. E., Nichols, L. M., Stuble, K. L., Ellison, A. M., Sanders, N. J., Dunn, R. R., & Gotelli, N. J. (2014) · Ecosphere · doi:10.1890/es14-00143.1 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“…et al. 2000, Sanders et al. 2007, Dunn et al. 2009, Pelini et al. 2011a), colony survival (Pelini et al. 2012), worker density (Pelini et al. 2011a, Diamond et al. 2012a), foraging behavior (Ruano et al. 2000, Pelini et al. 2011a, Stuble et al. 2013), and competitive interactions (Cerda et al.…”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationKristensen, T. N., Henningsen, A. K., Aastrup, C., Bech‐Hansen, M., Bjerre, L. B. H., Carlsen, B., Hagstrup, M., Jensen, S. G., Karlsen, P., Kristensen, L., et al. (2015) · Insect Science · doi:10.1111/1744-7917.12239 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“CTmax is an important predictor of field heat resistance and small differences may have major impact on the distribution of ectotherms in nature (Sunday et al., 2011; Diamond et al., 2012).”
BackgroundGeographic divergence in upper thermal limits across insect life stages: does behavior matter?
MacLean, H. J., Higgins, J. K., Buckley, L. B., & Kingsolver, J. G. (2016) · Oecologia · doi:10.1007/s00442-016-3561-1 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Kaspari, M. E., Bujan, J., Roeder, K. A., de Beurs, K. M., & Weiser, M. D. (2019) · Ecology · doi:10.1002/ecy.2888 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Senior, V. L., Evans, L. C., Leather, S. R., Oliver, T. H., & Evans, K. L. (2020) · Global Change Biology · doi:10.1111/gcb.15015 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“This is perhaps expected given that most temperate insect species, especially those in closed (rather than open) habitats experience temperatures that are well within their thermal limits (Deutch et al. 2008; Diamond et al. 2012; Sunday 2014).”
BackgroundDoes social thermal regulation constrain individual thermal tolerance in an ant species?
Villalta, I., Oms, C. S., Angulo, E., Molinas‐González, C. R., Devers, S., Cerdá, X., & Boulay, R. (2020) · Journal of Animal Ecology · doi:10.1111/1365-2656.13268 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Evolution is a double‐edged sword, not a silver bullet, to confront global change
Diamond, S. E., & Martin, R. A. (2020) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.14410 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Self-citationQueiroz, A. C. M., Marques, T., Ribas, C. R., Cornelissen, T., Nogueira, A., Schmidt, F. A., Feitosa, R. M., Sobrinho, T. G., Quinet, Y., Baccaro, F. B., et al. (2022) · Biotropica · doi:10.1111/btp.13158 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“These climatic filters affect different facets of ant assemblages, including ant activity, distribution, and diversity, because ant species exhibit specific tolerance limits (Barrow & Parr, 2008; Diamond et al., 2012).”
BackgroundScale‐dependent thermal tolerance variation in Australian mountain grasshoppers
Slatyer, R., Nash, M., & Hoffmann, A. A. (2015) · Ecography · doi:10.1111/ecog.01616 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Nowrouzi, S., Andersen, A. N., Bishop, T. R., & Robson, S. K. A. (2018) · Oecologia · doi:10.1007/s00442-018-4154-y · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Warming effects on leaf nutrients and plant growth in tropical forests
Wu, T., Qu, C., Li, Y., Li, X., Zhou, G., Liu, S., Chu, G., Meng, Z., Lie, Z., & Liu, J. (2019) · Plant Ecology · doi:10.1007/s11258-019-00943-y · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Arnán, X., Blüthgen, N., Molowny‐Horas, R., & Retana, J. (2015) · Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.3389/fevo.2015.00138 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“, 2009 ; Diamond et al .”
- Authors
- Diamond, S. E., Sorger, D. M., Hulcr, J., Pelini, S. L., Toro, I. D., Hirsch, C., Oberg, E., & Dunn, R. R.
- Affiliations
- North Carolina State University (US)
- Department of Biology North Carolina State University Raleigh NC 27695‐7617 USA
- Harvard University (US)
- University of Massachusetts Amherst (US)
- Texas A&M University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Diamond, Sarah E.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Global Change Biology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2011-10-09
- Volume
- 18
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 448-456
- ISSN
- 1354-1013 (ISSN-L)
- 1365-2486
- OpenAlex
- W2141603736
- Cited by
- 259
- References
- 52
- Citations by year
- 2026: 24 · 2025: 17 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 15 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 20 · 2020: 24 · 2019: 20 · 2018: 18 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 22 · 2015: 15 · 2014: 20 · 2013: 12 · 2012: 8
- FWCI
- 11.30
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Global Change Biology (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- U.S. Department of Energy
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Physiological and biochemical adaptations
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Insect and Arachnid Ecology and Behavior
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecological Modeling › Species Distribution and Climate Change
- Keywords
- ants, warming tolerance, heat tolerance, global warming, latitudinal gradient, tropical forest canopy, habitat moisture, altitude, phylogeny, climate change vulnerability
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